SYLLABUS 



— OF 



LECTURES IN ANATOMY 



AND 



PHYSIOLOGY. 



THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 



T. B. STOWELL, A.M., Ph.D., 

State Normal and Training School, Cortland, JV. Y. 



QP 41 
.$89 
Copy 1 




SYRACUSE, N. Y.: 
0. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER, 

1889. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 

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UNITED STATES OE AMERICA. 



SYLLABUS 



OF 



LECTURES IN ANATOMY 



AND — 



PHYSIOLOGY. 



THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 

v 

:■■■ 

T. B. STO WELL, A.M., Ph.D., 

State Normal and Training School, Cortland, JV. Y. 




SYRACUSE, N. Y.: 
C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER, 

1889. 

Copyright 1877, 1889, by T. B. Stowell. 







INDEX. 



Absorption 32 

Adjustment. Focal 116 

Air. Expired 62 

Inspired 62 

Alba ' 82 

Alcohol 36 

Alimentary Canal 24 

Development of 40 

Amoeba 6 

Animal Heat 68 

Arteries 42 

Asphyxia 62 

Audition 112 

Beverages 36 

Bile 32 

Blood 50 

Bones 8 

Development of 10 

Structure 8 

Brain 90 

Development of 86 

Bronchi 58 

Callosum 92 

Capillaries 44 

Cartilage 6 

Cerebrum 90 

Cerebellum 98 

Cinerea 82 

Circulation 40 

Fcetal 50 

Forces of 46 

Rapidity of 46 

Coeles 94 

Coffee 36 

Color 118 

Costae 16 

Cranial ZSTerves 98 

Dermis 70 

Diencephal 88 

Digestion 24 

Ear 110 

Endomysium 18 

Endyma 94 



Epencephal 88 

Epiderm 70 

Eye 112 

Appendages 112 

Globe .114 

Focal adjustment 116 

Food-stuffs 24 

Quality of 34 

Quantity of 36 

Fornix 92 

Ganglion ; / 76 

Gastric Juice 26 

Gemina 96 

Gyres 92 

Hair 72 

Hearing 110 

Heart 40 

Development of 48 

Hypocamp 94 

Intestinal Juice 30 

Involuntary Muscle 18 

Inspired Air 62 

Kidney 74 

Larynx 64 

Liver 30 

Lungs 60 

Lymph 56 

Lymph glands 56 

Lymphatics 54 

Meals 36 

Mesencephal 88 

Metencephal 88 

Muscle 18 

Involuntary 18 

Plain IS 

Striated 18 

Voluntary , 18 

Muscular Sense 24 

Nails 70 

Narcotics 38 

Nares 110 

Serve Cell 76 

Xerve Fibre 76 



INDEX. 



Nerves 

Abducens 102 

Accessory 106 

Auditory 100 

Common Sensation 104 

Cranial 98 

Facial 102 

Glosso-pharyngeal 104 

Hypo-glossal . 104 

Mixed 106 

Motion 102 

Oblongata 98 

Oculo-motor 102 

Olfactory 100 

Optic 100 

Plexus 80 

Special Sense 100 

Spinal Nerves 76 

Sympathic 86 

Trigeminus 104 

Trochlear 102 

Vagus 106 

Neurocoele 86 

Neurotics 36 

Odontoblasts 18 

Opium 38 

Olfactory Membrane 108 

Pancreatic Juice 28 

Perimysium 18 

Periosteum 10 

Phonation .' 66 

Pons 88 

Prosencephal 90 

Reflex Action 84 

Respiration 58 

Artificial 62 



Ribs 16 

Saliva 26 

Sarcolemma 20 

Sebaceous Glands 72 

Sedatives 38 

Sight 112 

Skeleton 10 

Skin 70 

Skull 12 

Smell 108 

Spinal Cord 80 

Spinal Nerves 76 

Spleen 58 

Sternum 16 

Striatum 94 

Sudoriparous Glands 72 

Sympathic Nerves 86 

Sweat Glands 72 

Taste 108 

Tea 36 

Teeth 16 

Thalamus 96 

Tobacco 38 

Tongue 108 

Touch 106 

Trachea 58 

Urine 76 

Veins 44 

Ventilation 66 

Vertebra 10 

Development of 12 

Villi 32 

Vision 116 

Vocal Cords 66 

Voice 64 

Water 36 



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INTRODUCTION 



The publication of the first edition of the Syllabus was prompted 
by a desire to bring definite topics to the attention of students. Ex- 
perience has shown that greater efficiency and economy of time may 
be secured by giving directness to inquiry and prominence to items of 
importance. 

The Syllabus is not a text or a work of reference; it is rather a 
guide to be used in connection with dissections, experiments, models, 
charts, diagrams, lantern-slides and the microscope. Students are 
expected to make detailed drawings of structures and to describe ex- 
periments: for this purpose alternate pages are blank. 

In the present unsettled condition of many questions of morphol- 
ogy and physiology it would seem presumptuous to make positive 
assertions: while it has been the aim of the author to present the 
advanced views of working morphologists and physiologists, gener- 
ally accepted views have been stated to the exclusion of doubtful 
and even plausible hypotheses. It has been found advantageous to 
treat the brain as representing five neuromeres, and the hemicerebra 
as having five lobes; only the simpler gyres and fissures are described. 
Since the names of the bones, muscles and blood-vessels are to be 
found in texts, they have been purposely omitted. 

The skeleton and skeletal muscles are studied before digestion, to 
show the demand for food and the necessity of rendering the same 
soluble. 

The general ' Theory of Treatment ' is suggested in the thought, 
Physical man is a federation of amoeboid cells. 

The nomenclature relating to the Brain is substantially that recom- 
mended by Dr. B. G. Wilder in the article, Cl Gross Anatomy of the 
Brain," Beference Hand Book of the Medical Sciences, vol. VIIT. 

The author acknowledges his indebtedness to Dr. Wilder for valu- 
able suggestions regarding the brain, and to Dr. C. H. Stowell for 
the use of the cut of the spinal cord, p. 82. The original cuts of the 
brain were made expressly for this work. 

T. B. S. 

Cortland, N. Y , April, 1889. 



SYLLABUS. 



I. AMCEBA. 

I. Structural Characters. — irregular mass of bioplasm; differen- 
tiation partial, ectoplasm hyaline, contractile, specialized, no body- 
wall: endoplasm fluid, granular — pseud opodia, non-restriction to 
any region of mass, protrusile and retractile, organs of locomo- 
tion, '.amoeboid movement — contractile vesicle contents, rhythmic 
pulsations — nucleus (endoplast) = differentiated endoplasm, posi- 
tion, number — power of A. to resist high temperature — Type Cell. 

II. Digestive System — Absence of enteron — food organic; mode of 
prehension; immediate contact of plasm with food, metabolism, 
assimilation — ejesta. 

III. Circulatory System — currents visible in endoplasm, tracts not 
differentiated. 

IV. Depuratory System — Absence of organs; evidence of secre- 
tions^ peripheral respiration, immediate contact of cell-mass with 
oxygen. 

Y. Nervous System — sensitive to touch, to light: irritability; dis- 
crimination and selection in foods. 

VI. Reproduction — simple fission. 

This nucleated mass of bioplasm without body-wall may be taken 
as a Type of the living cells of the various body-tissues; it repre- 
sents germinal, formative and formed matter. The bones, 
muscles, nerves, glands are morphologically and physiologically 
amoeboid cells. .Physical man=a federation of amoeboid cells. 

II. CARTILAGE. 

Cartilage is a semi-translucent elastic substance without vessels 
or nerves, and consists of nucleated cells and a matrix, whose 
character forms the basis of classification. 



8 

I. Hyaline — matrix, homogeneity; canal system, its relation with 
lacunae, its function — lacunae, size, form, grouping, lining capsule 
— cells, granular matter, nucleus, relative size, number, relation to 
matrix=germinal to formed matter — relation to adult skeleton — 
special forms, temporary, costal, articular. 

II. Yellow fibro-cartilage — color, matrix permeated by yellow- 
elastic fibre — cells, relation with meshes of fibre — function. 

III. White flbro-cartilage — matrix permeated by white fibrous tis- 
sue — cartilage cells, relative development of fibre and cell — slowness 
of structural changes — functions — distinctive forms, (a) interariic- 
ular, (b) circumferential, (c) connecting, (d) sesamoid. 

Development of Cartilage. 

III. BONE STRUCTURE. 

Tissues. 

1. Compact=exterior of bones, cells small, earthy matter abundant. 

2. Cancellated=:interior of bones, cells large, earthy matter less. 

Chemical Elements. 

1. Inorganic; mineral matter gives hardness and solidity, percent- 
age constant after maturity. 

2. Organic ; animal matter gives toughness and elasticity. 

Microscopic Strnctnre. 

1. Haversian canals. 

In compact osseous tissue — size, -g^j — 20 1 00 in... average g-^ in. — arrangement, 
in long axis of long bones — lining membrane, continuous with periosteum — 
office, contain vessels, communication between periosteum and medullary 
canal. 

2. Lamellae. 

Concentric rings around canals — successive layers of bone — decussating fibres — 
perforating fibres. 

3. Lacunae. 

Dark spots in and between lamellae— connected by canaliculi— occupied by nucle- 
ated cells= osteoblasts. 

Definition — A bone is an aggregation of Haversian elements — an 
Haversian element consists of an Haversian • canal surrounded by 
concentric lamellae, in which are the lacunae connected by the 
canaliculi. 



10 

Blood Yessels. 

Peripheral, central; entrance, near articular surface (usually); emer- 
gence, by large veins which accompany the arteries, by small veins 
at the extremities, by small veins from vessels in compact tissue. 

Periosteum. 

Ectal and ental layers, their distinctive structures — thickness in 
young bones, in old bones — protection to vessels before distribu- 
tion to bone — nerve filaments. 

Mode of Development — intra-eartilaginous — intra-membranous — 
action of cells as chondroblasts, as osteoblasts, as osteoclasts. 

Growth — longitudinal^ in cartilage at either extremity — circumferen- 
tial, deposition of material under periosteum. 

IT. SKELETON. 

I. Axial Skeleton: Columna Yertebralis — direction — curves — 
somatic relations, dorsal, ventral, lateral — segmental structure. 

Vertebrae : 

1. Centrum; structure, peripheral=com\>&o,t osseous tissue, central 
^cancellated tissue — faces, cephalic, caudal, ventral, dorsal= 
arch — distinctive character of centrum in the several regions; cer- 
vical, in atlas wanting, in axis=odontoid process, its mode of 
development and ossification, thoracic, arthron capitelli=distinc- 
tive, lumbar, arthron capitelli=wanting, neurapophysis=dis- 
tinctive, relative length and breadth, sacral and caudal, anchy- 
losis of centra — epiphyses, union with centrum=an index of 
maturity — intervertebral cartilage, form, function, absence be- 
tween atlas and axis. 

2. Arch — pedicles and laminee — incisura vertebralis — intervertebral 
foramen for spinal nerves — angulation — relative length and 
breadth in cervical, thoracic and lumbar regions, absence of arch 
in caudal region=distinctive — groove in 1° cervical lamina for 
vertebral artery. 

3. Processes — (a.)Dorsal, spina neuralis (neurapophysis) in cervi- 
cal region=bifi&, diminutive in 1°, long and groove din 2°, gen- 
eral increase in length from 4° to 7° — in thoracic region directed 
obliquely caudad — in lumbar region short, broad, directed 
dorsad. 



12 

(b.) Articular (zygapophyses) — at union of pedicle with lamina — 
cephalic and caudal faces of vertebras distinguished by direction 
of arthral surfaces, praszygapophyses face dorsad or dorso-mesad, 
postzygapophyses, ventrad or ventro-laterad. 

(c.) Transverse (diapophyses) — at junction of articular process and 
pedicle — characteristic position and direction in the three regions: 
in cervical ventrad of articular, foramen vertebrarteriale=a dis- 
tinctive character, in thoracic dorsally disposed, in lumbar ven- 
trad of articular, direction dorsad and laterad. 

Development of Vertebra. 

Primitive dorsal groove in germinal membrane from ' middle blasto- 
derm cells 7 converted into canal by union of edges — in floor of 
canal "noto-chord" developed — appearance of dark cellular 
masses, primordial vertebras — disappearance of lines of demarca- 
tion in masses — intermediate limits of permanent vertebras — ver- 
tebra formed from adjacent parts of two primordial masses — 
essentially three pieces to each vertebra; from one develops 
greater part of centrum, from other two the arch and processes. 

Skull : Cranium and Face. 

Number, position, relation of bones=constant character — articula- 
tions immovable (synarthrosis), ex. mandible (diarthrosis) — 
segmental structure (?) archetypal segments — foramina, rela- 
tions, traversing vessels and nerves. 

II. Appendicular Skeleton. 

Items to be noted concerning each Bone. 

1. Name. 2. Location. 3. General Shape. 4. Articulations. 5. 

Processes. 

Caudal Limb. 

Angulation — plane of motion — antagonism of membral segments. 

1. Pelvic-girdle: primitive character— articulation with vertebrae— acetabulum — 

segments, dorsaZ= ilium, form, surfaces, borders, ventro-ce2)hcdic=\)uheii, 
ventro-caudal=iscliium, homotype. 

2. Meros (thigh): femur, length, shaft (diaphysis), extremities, serial homology. 

3. Cms (leg)"T parallelism of bones, relative size— homolog}'— cephalic bone= 

tibia, caudal=fibula. 

4. Tarsus: tarsalia, proximal series, astragalus (tibiale, intermedium), os calcis 

(tibulare), intermediate series, scaphoid (centrale), distal series, internal cune- 
iform (tarsale 1), middle cuneiform (t. 2), external cuneiform (t. 3), cuboid, 
(t. 4 } 5)— arrangement of tarsalia=distinctive character of the pes. 

5. Metatarsus: relative length, arch, metatarsalia, serial homologues. 

6. Phalanges (clactyli): length— homonomy— distinctive character of primus 

(hallux). 



16 

Cephalic Limb. 

Angulation — planes of motion — antagonism of membral segments 
— homologies — a constant character of the mammalia. 

1. Shoulder-girdle: scapula, non-articulation with axial skeleton, primitive char- 

acter; dorsal segment=scapula, ventral segment =coracoid (process) — varia- 
tion in the "scapular index " as an ethnological character — glenoid cavity, — 
clavicle, peculiarities— constancy in mammals which dig, fly, climb, seize. 

2. Brachium (arm): humerus, length, shaft, extremities. 

3. Ante-brachium (fore-arm): plane of motion — distinctive features of bones — 

cephalic bone=radius, caudal=ulna. 

4. Carpus (wrist): relative length and breadth — dorsal convexity — carpalia, 

proximal series, scaphoid (radiale), semi-lunar (intermedium), cuneiform 
(ulnare), pisiform ^sesamoid bone, intermediate series wanting, distal series, 
trapezium (capale 1), trapezoid (c. 2), magnum (c. 3), unciform (c. 4, 5). 

5. Metacarpus (palm): length, arch — metacarpalia, number, distinctive 

character of metacarpale 1. 

6. Phalanges (digiti): length — homonomy — distinctive character of primus 

(pollex) — relation of length of hand to height. 

Sternum. 

Position — surfaces, ventral, dorsal — form — segmental structure; 
presternum (manubrium), mesosternum (gladiolus), xiphister- 
num (ensiform appendix) — relations of the several segments to 
structures adjacent — development. 

Costae (ribs). 

Relations with axial skeleton and ventrimeson — surfaces, ectal, 
ental — borders, cephalic, caudal — general form — number — classes; 
sternal, asternal, floating — common characters; dorsal extremity, 
capitellum, tuberculum, cervix, ventral extremity, costal cartil- 
ages — distinctive characters, relative length, direction, etc. — 
intercostal spaces, length, breadth — development — differentia- 
tions of ventral system of arches. 

T. TEKTH. 

Temporary Set — number — distinctive character. 

Permanent Set. 

1. Crown — distinctive form in the several classes of teeth — cover- 
ing enamel. 

2. Neck — constricted portion between crown and fang — attachment 
to gum. 

3. Fang — implanted in alveoli — lining periosteum of alveolar de- 
pression reflected upon fang — pressure upon crown distributed 
equally by taper of fang — blood vessels and nerves enter through 
apex — number and form=distinctive characters. 



18 

Structure. 

1. Central pulp cavity— dental pulp, vascularity, sensitiveness, 

vessels, nerves. 

2. Solid part — (a) enamel: microscopic prisms, almost wholly 
mineral, arrangement nearly perpendicular to surface, in waving 
lines — limitation to exposed crown, maximum thickness on 
grinding surface — calcareous "cuticle of enamel " on surface. 

(b.) dentine : principal part? — tine tubules in rnatrix 7 open cen- 
tred into pulp, radiate peripheral! in curves and undulation-. 
near periphery inosculate in loops, general direction nearly at 
right angles to surface — membranous lining, relation of nerves in 
tubules — matrix, translucent, penetrated by fine branches of 
tubules — interglobular spaces between dentine and cementum. 

(c.) cementum : modified bone cells — distribution. 

Development and Growth. — Odontoblasts line pulp-cavity ; pro- 
cesses peripherad relate with peripheral lacunae (cells"), processes cen- 
trad relate with central cells, intercommunicating processes relate 
with each other. 

VI. MUSCLES. 

Items concerning each Muscle. 

1. Xame. 2. Origin. 3 Insertion. 4. Action. 

Classes 

1. Smooth or plain. 

Color pale — fibres prismatic — cells elongated, contractile, nucleated — oblong 
corpuscles — no sarcoleniina. 

II. Striated. 1. Sheath=perimysium, yellow-elastic fibre in 
investing portion, white fibre in penetrating portion=endoinv- 
sium. 

2. Fibre, (a.) Arrangement in fasciculi — prismatic in figure — 
fasciculi do not interlace in voluntary muscle — parallelism of fibre 
when depth is slight — divergence when depth is considerable, e.g.. 
bladder of frog — absence of stria? in filamentous extremities. 

(b.) Length— mean length. .084— .089 mm . .003 in. 

(cm Breadth— mean breadth. .004— .007 mm.. .0001— .0003 in. 
(d.) Nucleus — form, single (generally), or rod-shaped — structure. 

homogeneous except granules, nucleoli — position just entad of 

sarcolemma — connecting processes . 



20 

(e.) Microscopic structure of fibre: 

(1) Sheath:=sarcolemma or myolenmia. 

(2) Muscle compartments: alternate broad dim contractile disks and 

bright interstitial disks; middle light band of Engelmann in the contrac- 
tile disk and dark band of Bowman m the interstitial disk=membrane of 
Krause (the terminal boundary of a compartment); granules of Flogel; 
Shaefer's dumb bells; sarcous elements, not hollow, length TT |oo in- 
— 2otroo m > connection of elements by "connecting material." separation 
by re-agents into disks (Bowman) or into fibriUse— ends of fibrillar intro- 
duced between two adjoining fibres near their dilated regions — transections 
of fibrillse show rings and sections of nuclei, long sections show elongated 
nuclei. 

(f.) Vessels — capillaries do not penetrate fibres — nutriment by- 
imbibition — lymphatics few, in largest muscles loops from plex- 
uses between fibres. 

(g.) Innervation — Motor nerve entrance of nerve, dichotomy of its 
fibres, distribution of nerve fibre to muscle fibre, terminal nerve 
plate, sensory nerve distribution to sarcolemma. 

(h.) Tendon — sheath, fibres, cells, blood-supply, nerves. 

( i. ) Peculiarities of cardiac fibres — absence of sarcolemma, small 
size, division and anastomosis, nucleated cells, ental position of 
nucleus in the cell. 

Distribution. 

Smooth muscular fibre throughout body, in posterior wall of trachea 
and in the bronchi, in lung sacs of infants, in walls of vessels. 

Striated fibre to skeletal and cardiac muscles, pharynx, oesoph- 
agus (cephalic part), ental ear, urethra. 

Mode of Growth — Increase in bulk of fibre, not in number. 
Properties of Voluntary Muscle. 

1. Irritability — contraction when stimulated. 

2. Tonicity — constant tendency to contract — effect of vaso-motor 
stimulus. 

3. Elasticity — stretch when weighted — limited. 

Source of Muscular Energy — conserved energy of chemism, not 
simple oxidation. 

Nature of Contraction — Change in form — slight change in volume 
— translocation of molecules — in waves — tetanic, rapid and sudden, 
reaching maximum instantly — relaxation is slow — direction of con- 
traction-wave, in striated muscle=rlongitudinal; in unstriated, 
longitudinal and transverse — transmission of wave-impulse with- 
out nerve intervention — urarised muscle — cadaveric rigidity (Brown- 
Sequard) . 



24 

Muscular Murmur — the sound attending normally or artirlcally 
stimulated muscles (19.5 vibr. per sec.) indicates a vibrating condi- 
tion of fibre. 

Muscular Sense — present in skeletal muscles — sense of pressure, of 
weight, of fatigue: this sense primarily enables the nervous system 
to supply the requisite stimulus for muscular contraction — suscep- 
tibility to education — referable to sensory nerves of muscles (?) 

Physiology — smooth fibres =in voluntary (ex. muscles of the rectum 
and the urocyst) — striated fibres=voluntary (ex. cardiac fibres). 
Effect of muscular exercise seen in increased elimination of CO.-,, 
in rapidity of circulation, in perspiration, in enlarged size and 
firmness of muscles, in increased secretion of urea, in body tem- 
perature. Evils attending excessive exercise, hypertrophy of 
heart, chill, degeneration of muscle fibre. 

Til. DIGESTION. 

Food Stuffs. 

Group I. Bioplasm. Xitrogenized group. Proteids. 

e. g. albumen (white of egg), gluten (flour), fibrin (of blood), svntonin (lean 
rneat) ? casein (cheese), etc" 

Group II. Carbo -Hydrates. Amyloids. 

e. g. starch, sugar, guru, dextrine, etc. 

Group III. Hydro- Carbons. 
e. g. fats, oils. 

Group IV. Minerals, 
e. g. salts, water, oxygen (?). 

General Anatomy of Alimentary Canal and Accessories. 

Mouth — Pharynx — Oesophagus — Stomach, cardia. pylorus — Intes- 
tines, duodenum, jejunum (valvulae conniventes). ileum, caecum. 
lileo-caecal valve, appendix veiToitbrmis). colon (ascending, trans- 
verse, descending . sigmoid flexure, rectum. 

1. Position. 2. Length. 3. Attachment. 4. Coats. 5. Vessels. 
6. Xerves. of each portion. 

Omentum and its reflections—mesentery and its attachment — teeth 
cf. p. Tongue, cf. Taste, p. 

Salivary Glands. 

Parotid. Submaxillary. Sublingual. Muciparous — location, excre- 
tory duct and capillaries of each gland — grape-like clusters of 



26 

lobules somewhat flattened — rounded extremities of salivary tube 
— lining of "■ Glandular epithelium" — characteristic nucleated 
cells of ducts and their probable function of secretion. 
Saliva mingled with food during mastication = in salivation. 
Regulative mechanism of secretion due to reflex action. 

Demonstrated in submaxillary gland, by analogy in other glands. 
Unilateral secretion in man, in herbivora, etc. 

Composition of Saliva. 

Water, epithelium, granular nucleated cells, granular matter, oil 
globules, sulphocyanogen — the least concentrated digestive fluid 
— ptyalin ferment. 

Action of Saliva, amylolytic. 

Hydrated starch converted into dextrin and maltose, then into 
sugar — sugar converted into lactic acid — lactic acid acts upon 
Group I., q. v. — raw starch unchanged — feeble emulsifying 
action on fats due to a peptone ferment — relation of saliva to 
taste, to deglutition — mechanical office of saliva — its quantity — 
action of saliva arrested by gastric juice — waste of saliva by ex- 
pectoration — different starches acted upon with varying rapidity. 

Relative Yiscidity of Secretions. 

Parotid least viscid — submaxillary more — sublingual still more — 
muciparous most viscid. 

Reaction of Saliva Alkaline. 

How the Glands are excited to Activity. 

By sight of food — by odor of food — subjectively — parotid by move- 
ment of jaw — submaxillary by sense of taste — reflex action. 

Gastric Jnice. 

Glands — mucous membrane of stomach, thicker near pylorus — 
color red at cardiac and middle regions, paler at pyloric — gland- 
ular follicles — loop of capillary — simple follicle has cylindrical 
epithelium, compound has glandular — peculiar spheroidal cells 
of middle area, " pepsin cells" — follicles — " peptic glands," not 
found in pyloric portion — pepsin, " unorganized ferment/' anti- 
septic, not diminished by action, necessity of presence of free 
acid, non-accumulation of, pepsin formed in chief cells (Heiden- 
hain) in pyloric glands (Klemensiewicz.) HC1 in parietal cells 



28 

(Heidenhain) — influence of temperature — mode of secretion, cf. 
below — quantity during 24 hours — neutralization of gastric juice 
by alkali in duodenum. 

Action of Gastric Juice, ferment action. 

Pepsin dissolves Group I. — peptones — chymification — stages, 1°. 
swelling due to acid; 2.° soluble " albuminose " ; 3.° diffusible 
stage — sugar and starch not acted upon — alkalinity of blood 
(Pavy) and the mucosa (Claude Bernard) protect stomach from its 
own gastric juice. 

Reaction of Gastric Juice Acid. 

Peptic digestion essentially acid — lactic acid, hydric chloride, 
amount of free hydric chloride . 

Empty Stomach has neutral Reaction. 
Effect of Presence of Food in Stomach. 

1. Increased vascu]arity, 2. slight elevation of temperature, 3. ex- 
udation of acid secretion. 4. peristaltic movement. 

Influence of Nervous Condition over Gastric Secretion. 

Local secretory mechanism — effect of division of vagi and splanch- 

nics. 

Pancreas — position, size, lobulated structure — compound tubular 
gland — cells conical, apex centrad, peripheral zone striated, ental 
zone granular, nucleus midway, excretory duct — composition of 
the secretion. 

Action of Pancreatic Juice. 

Essentially an alkaline digestion. 

1. Transforms starch into sugar, even when raw, Group II. 

2. z Emulsifies and saponifies fats, Group III. 

3. Dissolves coagulated albuminous matter. Group I. 

4. : Contains a milk-curdling ferment. 

How the Secretion is Effected. 

Demonstrated in pancreas, .'. a type. 

1 . Outer zone of cell formed at expense of blood. 

2. Inner granular zone at expense of outer. 

3 . Secretion at expense of inner zone. 



30 

Intestinal Juice, succus entericus. 

Grlands, Brunner's. limited to duodenum, lobulated structure, lined 
with glandular epithelium — follicles of Lieberkuhn, whole length 
of small intestine, lined with cylindrical epithelium. 

Action of Intestinal Juice. 

l.° Converts hydrated starch into sugar. 
2.° Emulsifies fats. 

Reaction Alkaline. 

Secretions of Large Intestine. 

Excretine — stercorine, transformed cholesterine. 

Liver. 

Position — lobes — attachment — arteries — veins — special characters ; 

l. G Two sources of blood supply — hepatic artery, portal vein, no 
valves — I of entire blood. 

2.° Large size. 

3.° Histology — glandular cells and capillaries — hepatic lobules — 
interlobular veins — minute vessels into substance of lobules, in- 
tralobular veins — biliary ducts lined with pavement epithelium 
— plexus of biliary canaliculi — capillary bile-ducts smaller than 
capillary blood-vessels, and situated at maximum distance from 
blood-vessels — arrangement of polygonal hepatic cells between 
meshes of blood capillaries. 

4.° Innervation. 

Functions of the Liver. 

1. Secretion of bile ; exit via bile-ducts into duodenum. 

2. Formation of glycogen; exit via blood-capillaries into hepatic 
vein. 

3. Source of red blood corpuscles. 

4. Formation of hematoidin (bilirubin) from decomposition of red 
blood corpuscles. 

5. Action on peptones. 

6. Duct of Spleen — filter for removal of corpuscles disintegrated in 
spleen. 

7. Formation of urea.(?) 



32 

Action of Bile. 

1. Slight emulsifying and saponifying: power — reaction alkaline. 

2. Assists osmosis of fats. 

3. Dissolves hydrated starch, due to a diastatic ferment. 

4. Group II.. q. v. converted into glycogen, reserve material, 
which is transformed into sugar. 

Glycogen transformed into glucose enters hepatic vein — formation 
jf glucose constant — non-accumulation — absorption — if glucose 
is excessive, sugar is eliminated in urine=diabete- 

5. Increases peristaltic action. 

6. Prevents putrefaction in the intestines 
How Secretion of Bile is Effected. 

Due to metabolic activity of protoplasm of hepatic cells. 

Fate of Bile. 

1. Mucin discharged with faeces 

2 Bile-pigments discharged with faeces, and in urine. 

3. Cholesterin discharged with nieces 

4. Biliary salts reabsorbed and reemployed. 

Channels ol Absorption. 

A. Blood capillaries and lymph capillaries of stomach, of intes- 
tines, in walls of the organs, in the valvulae. in the villi. 

B. Villi — ? villi=piojeciion8 of the mucosa, hence con- 
tain all its tissue- elements, farm cylindrical, structure, 1. Ectal 
layer=retieulated columnar epithelium. 2. squamous epithelium 
=basement membrane. 3. adenoid tissue with leucocytes, 4. 
blood eapillaries=origin of mesenteric veins. 5. central lymphatic 
=laeteal. t plain musculaj fibre If. mucosae) just peripherad of 
5. and irregularly through 3. 7. innervation same as submucosa. 

- I - over entire length of small intestine. 

Physics of Absorption. 

Osmosis — sndosmometer-^— rapidity : ibsorption :: ;ri:ain salts — 

physiological and pathological importance. 
Diffusion — dirfusibility : pept oes. 
Filtration — due to pressure. 



34 

Pressure — caused by intestinal peristole — vacuum in emptied villi= 

•• negative " pressure. 

Process of Absorption. 

Peptones, by osmosis into blood, or carried by leucocytes — difTusi- 
bility great. 

Unchanged Proteids. filter with, difficulty, process not demonstrated. 

Carbohydrates, chiefly by osmosis into blood vessels. Portal vein). 

Fat soaps, by osmosis into blood-capillaries (intestinal.) 

Emulsified Fars=small particles not chemically changed, enter 
villi between the columnar epithelial cells, cross the interstitial 
space, enter the lacteal between the endothelial plates or are 
carried by leucocytes from the intestine to the lacteal. (?) 

Course of Absorbed Food. 

Digested food enters circulation vie Portal System and via Thoracic 
Duct — contraction of villi forces contents into veins and into lym- 
phatic plexuses, through mesenteric glands to receptaculum chyli 
— regurgitation prevented by valves. 

Till. SUGGESTIONS REGARDING FOOD-STUFFS. 

I. Quality of Food. 

Should regard waste — maintain health — "'Food becomes tissue 
: re it becc mes waste product." 

Should regard growth, kind of energy demanded, e. g. muscle- 
energy, nerve-enersry. heat-energy, condition of system — value of 
fats as sources of energy. 

Infected food not suitable for use. 

Argument for mixed diet. 

Excreta of adnlt=4.000 _ . - . irinn to 300 grs. Mtrogen. or 13 fa I 
Die: of whites of eggs=34 parts ( - :: - H". 

7547 grs. albumen yield 40 E [ grs . arbon. 

• " " 1132 grs. Nitrogen — only 300 srs. needed. 

1 lb. lean meat yields 1000 grs. C— deficit. 30 gis 

. _:s X. 

$ lb. fat " " Carbon to supply deficit. 

Value of diet of milk, eggs, oatmeal, soups, etc. 

Parasites are de^:r:y-ri by thorough cooking. 



36 

Quality of food-stuffs greatly affected by preparation. 
Metabolism of body increased by proteids — origin of fats, proteids= 

chief source, fats of food and carbohydrates=sources — how stored 

in body. 

Beneficial and injurious effects of condiments. 

Influence of foods in controlling or inducing constipation, diarrhoea, 
nausea, indigestion, etc. 

II. Quantity of Food. 

Should regard demand, present and future — maintenance of equili- 
brium of the metabolism. 

Students (generally) do not eat enough. 

Healthy appetite should be satisfied — the normal diet. 

III. Meals. 

Be regular at meals. Do not go hungry. 
Be cheerful at meals. Do not retire hungry. 
Be hearty at meals. 

IX. BETERAGES AND NEUROTICS. 

Importance of Water in Animal Economy. 

Thirst, normal, adnormal — ship-wrecked sailors. 
Temperature of beverages. 

Impurities of Water. 

Spring — Mineral — Kain. 
Morbid effects of infected water. 

Tea and Coifee. 

Conclusions of Dr. Bocker, (Researches on the Action of Tea). 

Effect upon nervous system, circulation, digestion, (Huxley). 

Prevention of waste, (Draper). 

Healthful and injurious effects, (Parkes) . 

Inhibitory effect of tea upon salivary digestion ( W. Roberts) . 

Alcohol as a Stimulant. 

When food is insufficient; inexhaustion; the medicinal dose. 



38 

Alcohol as a Narcotic. 

When food is sufficient, alcohol interferes with oxidation. 

In moderate doses Less than intoxication; physiological effects, 1. 
lowering of blood-pressure. 2. diminution of difference between 
systole and diastole of heart. 3. inhibition of vaso-motor nerves 
.".dilatation of vessels. - lestruction of metabolism (working 
i of cells, path ffects 1. starvation of cells. 2. non- 

-limintion of effete products. 3. lowering mperature, 4. loss 

: consistency in vessels, atrophy, embolism, rapture : vessel- 
wall, enlargement of vessels, 5. fatty degeneration, 6. "progressive 
paralysis" affecting judgment, motor centres, speech, cerebellum, 
spinal cord. 7. transmission of " neurotic taint ity. 

Per cent of Alcohol in drinks. I Brande 

Small 3ei 1.2 Malmsey Maderia. 16.4 

Porter 5.0 Claret 12. -17.5 

Cider . 5.1 Cape Madeira 20.5 

Rhenish 9.0 Sherry 19.2 

Hock 9.9 Madeira 22.2-24.2 

Elder win- 10.0 Pert 23.5 

Tokay . ... 10.0 Brandy 53 

Orange wine 11.2 Rum . . 53.0 

Gc sel rry wine 12.0 Scotch Whiskey 54.0 

tiampagne 12.5 Irish Whiskey 54.0 

Burgundy 14.5 

Physiological objections to the habitual use in even small quant: 
— poisonous character — tendency to produce morbid conditions 
— prevalence <~'f chronic diseases among those addicted to strong 
dunk- — increased liability to contagious diseases — diminished 
endurance for prolonged labor. 

Tobacco as a Sedative. 

Influence upon vocal organs, open ciicnlarion (Decaisne' — effect 

upon stomach, heart, brain, mucous membrane of mouth, bron- 
chial surface of lungs, etc. (Richardson. Frantzel). 

Opium as a Narcotic. 

Exaltation — subsequent depression (De Quineey). 

Interchanegable nature of stimulants, sedatives and narcotics. 



40 
X. DEYELOPMENT OF ALIMENTARY CANAL. 

A. Groove open toward yolk-cavity of ovum. 

Internal layer in which groove is formed = walls of vitelline sac. 

B. Groove closed at either extremity, open in middle. 

Alimentary can al= straight cylinder, closed at ends, ventrad of vertebral 
column— extremities of canal attached to vertebral column directly, mid- 
dle region of canal attached by membrane=mesentery — canal extends 
from anus to brain. . 

C. Groove becomes vitelline duct, which is subsequently obliterated 
— vitelline sac becomes umbilical vesicle — umbilical vesicle joined 
to embryo by pedicle, which is finally atrophied . 

D. Increased length of alimentary canal forms loop in middle of 
body — middle region of loop dilates=stomach, longitudinal dis- 
position — loop connected with yolk sac by vitelline duct — cephalic 
extremity of duct=pharynx and oesophagus — mouth=invagina- 
tion of outer surface of embryo and is at first separated from 
pharynx by membrane — anus=invagination of outer surface in 
similar manner. 

E. Dextral border of stomach enlarged first — sinistral border re- 
ceives greater dilation — first position of stomach mesal, then 
oblique, finally transverse — pylorus seen at 3° month. 

F. Protrusion of cgecum below apex of loop, cf. stage (D). 

G. Jejunum, at first in umbilical cord, retires into abdomen after 
10° week. 

EL Colon primarily of less calibre than small intestine — first appear- 
ance entirely sinistrad of small intestine, at 10° week has crossed 
to dextral side adjoining liver. 

I. Caecum develops caudad into right iliac region — completion at 
4° or 5° month — primarily uniform — cephalic portion grows, 
caudal region persists=appendix vermiformis. 

J. Ileo-cascal valve appears at 3° month — no appendix at this time. 

K. Villous processes primarily throughout canal — persist only in 
middle region="Conniventes." 

XI. CIRCULATION. 
I. Heart. 

Position — relations — shape — size — divisions — histology — pericardi- 
um, dimensions, attachments. 



42 

Auricles. 

Structure of walls — muscular columns — openings — valves, eustach- 
ian, coronary. 

Yentricles. 

Right, left — walls, structure, relative thickness, spiral arrangement 
of fibre — columnge carneas — chordae tendinese — papillary mus- 
cles — openings — valves: tricuspid, mitral, semilunar. Peculiar 
construction of semilunar of pulmonary artery, and of tricuspid, 
making slight reflux of blood possible under pressure — relative 
length of ventricles during systole . 

Pulsations. 

Spiral motion of heart during pulsations. 
Two sounds of heart, relative intervals. 
Rhythmic action — cardiac cycle. 

Movement of foot when " Popliteal Artery " rests on knee — form of 
pulse. 

Direction of Blood through the Heart. 

Cause of Contraction of Heart. 

Due to muscular irritability — automaticity. 

Not due to nervous influence — woorara destroys nervous irritabil- 
ity, potassic cyanide destroys muscular irritability. 

Influence of chemical constitution of blood — of blood-pressure — of 
temperature. 

Influence of Nervous System upon Action of Heart. 

Blow upon epigastrium produces arrest. 
Sudden emotions modify action — pain inhibits .'. faintness. 
Form and frequency of pulsations regulated by Sympathic, Vagus, 
and Accelerator Nerves. 

II. Arteries. 

1. Coats — (1.) Peripheral, connective tissue, dense, strong. 

(2.) Middle, elastic tissue and unstriped muscular fibre. 

(a.) In small arteries, exclusively muscular, 
(b.) In medium, muscular and elastic, 
(c.) In largest, exclusively elastic. 

(3.) Internal, serous, smooth, lined with flattened epi- 
thelium. 

2. Valves wanting, except semilunars of aorta, and pulmonary. 



44 

3. Plan of distribution — origin=large trunks, termination=capil- 
laries. 

Peculiar arrangement in fingers, palm of hand, olecranon, knee, toe, parts of 
sole of foot. 

4. Variation in calibre during day. 

5. Sphygmograph tracings. 

6. Items to be noted concerning the principal arteries — Name. 
Origin. Distribution. Principal branches. 

III. Veins. 

1. Coats — (1) Peripheral, cellular, dense, firm. 

(2) Middle, fibrous, great resistance to pressure, very- 



thin. 



(3) Internal, serous, (folds). 



Muscular and elastic tissues less than in arteries, connective 
tissue more abundant . 

2. Frequent anastomoses. 

3. Valves — (a) Distribution. 

In minutest venules, in cephalic extremity where they do not 
resist gravity, not in cavities not subject to compression. 

When the axon is horizontal, valves are found in veins whose 
current is dorsad. 

(b) Bordered by fibrous ring. 

Veins not distended at valves. 

(c) Function. 

To arrest reflux, when blood resists gravity. 

" " " " " underpressure. 

" " " " muscular contraction forces blood to 

skin . 
To prevent excessive strain upon peripheral vessels. 

4. Movement of blood through veins due to 

(a) Arterial pressure. 

(b) Contraction of voluntary muscles. 

(c) Force of aspiration. 

5. Capacity of veins — double that of arteries — arteries are overfull. 

IV. Capillaries. 

1. Distinctive structure. 

Single amorphous tunic, longitudinal nuclei, flattened epithelial cells, small 
uniform diameter. 

2. Plan of distribution. 

Frequent inosculations, characteristic arrangement in muscles, in mucous 
membranes, in papillae, in malpighian bodies, in connective tissue. 



46 



3. Circulation in. 



Arterial pressure = cause, uniformity of current influenced by elasticity of 
adjacent tissue, subject to local variations, e. g. pallor, "blushing," 
congestion, inflammation, condition of glands in action, etc. — absence 
of pulse. 

4. Relation to tissue. 

Indirect contact of blood with substance of tissue— intervascular spaces 
nourished by transudation and absorption of fluid, cf . Lymphatics, p. 

5. Peripheral resistance, cause, function. 

Y. Rapidity of Circulation. 

Circulation completed in 23 sec. or 20 sec. 

All blood of body through heart in 48 sec. 

If pulsations increased, general circulation increased, but not in 
same ratio. 

Not uniform throughout body, 

e. g. in carotid from 4.5 in. — 8 in. per sec. in metatarsal 2.2 per sec. 

TI. Forces of Circulation. 

Central heart-beat. 

Peripheral resistance=arterioles and capillaries. 

VII. Mechanics of Circulation — blood pressure (arterial) depends 
upon: 

Force of heart-beat. Elasticity of artery. 

Frequency of heart-beat. Respiratory movements. 

Peripheral resistance (capill.) Capacity of vessels (vaso-motor.) 

Till. Circulation affected by : 

Clothing. Quantity of blood. 

Cleanliness. Quality of blood (chemical). 

Exercise. Temperature. 

State of mind. Blood-pressure. 

Vital condition of tissue. Change in equilibrium of forces of 

Vaso-motor nerves. circulation. 

Electric currents. 

IX. Practical Suggestions. 

Distinguish between wounds of arteries and of veins, treatment of 
each — application of ligatures, of bandages — varicose veins — na- 
ture of inflammation, of congestion, theory of treatment — theory 
of counter-irritants — modifications in dress regarding circulation 
— treatment for fainting, for apoplexy. 



48 

XII. DEVELOPMENT OF HEART. 
1. Longitudinal Tube — two vessels entering saine=ver— 
Caudal portion=union of veins=priinitive auricle. 
Dilation of tube=priinitive ventricle . 
Cephalic portion of tube=priniitive bulb. 

"2. Horseshoe flexure throws Auricle dorsad aud cephalad of 
Tentricle. 

3. Slight dilation of Auricles — two appendages^ true auricles — 
increased thickness and length of ventricle — flexion dextrad . 

4. Division of Tentricle and of Bulb by Septa. 

Ventricular septum begun at 4 C — 5\ completed t8° wc _ _iricular - 

tuni begiui at compTetion of V-septmn (foramen ovale), completed at birth 
— cyan" safe 

5. Division of Truncus Arteriosus by Septum. 

Separate trunks— aorta and pulmonary artr 

Union of trunk-septum with ventricle-septum relates arteries with 

ventricles. 
Non-development of septuni=Ductus Botalli. 

6. Primitive Aortic Arches, dextral and sinistral from Bulb. 
Primitive dorsal aortas, dextral and sinistral. 
Oniphalo-niesenteric arteri - - 

7. Union of two dorsal vessels dorsad of Heart. 
S. Formation of secondary Aortic Arches. 

These join ventral and dorsal trunks from cephalic to caudal por- 
tion in succession — five pairs — non-coexistence. 

9. Transformation of Temporary into Permanent Arterial Tes- 
sels. 

Ascending aorta persists from Primitive Bulb. 7 - v week. 
Ventral trunks=external carotids — dorsal trucks = internal caro- 
tids. 
Formation of descending aorta from united dorsal trunk- 
Formation of "azch" from left 4 : primary aortic arch. 
Formation of pulmonary arteries from branches of left 5 . 
Formation of Ductus Arteri ous from left 5 aortic arch. 

10. Oblique position of Apex at U month. 



50 

XIII. PLAN OF FCETAL CIRCULATION. 

Allantois=niucous membrane of uterus — penetration of villi of allan- 
tois into mucous membrane — modification of maternal capillaries, 
complete fusion into sinuses — foetal capillary tufts bathed in con- 
tents of sinuses, cf . absorption — indirect communication between 
foetal and maternal vessels — osmosis of nutriment in sinuses — 
placenta— nutritive, excretory, and respiratory organ of foetus. 

General course of circulation. 

1. From placenta through umbilical vein to liver. 

(a) Through ductus venosus to ascending vena cava. 

(b) Through liver, via hepatic vein to vena cava. 

2. From vena cava to right auricle and through foramen ovale into 
left auricle — action of eustachian valve and tubercle of Lower — 
prevention of reflux by valve of foramen ovale. 

3. From left auricle into left ventricle. 

4. Return from head and cephalic extremities through descending 
vena cava to right auricle and into right ventricle. 

5. From right ventricle through pulmonary artery, ductus venosus 
into arch. 

6. From left ventricle through system, via aorta. 

7. From iliac via, hypogastric to placenta. 

XIT. BLOOD. 

1. Amount. 

Method of determination — X3~i weight of body, average 12-18 
lbs. — volume exceeds capacity of vascular system (living), in- 
sufficient to fill all the vessels (after death). 

2. Distribution. 

I in heart, lungs, arteries, veins, I in liver, k in skeletal muscles, 
* in other organs. 

3. Composition. 

A. Plasma, 55 per cent. 

Water, albumen, salts, fibrin, 2 parts in 1000. (Serum=alburnen-f-water 
-(-salts — Clot=fibrin-f-corpuscles, action in arresting hemorrhage) — 
fibrin = oxidation product of fibrinogen. 

Conveys nutriment to body — transfers heat — function in respir- 
ation. 



52 

B. Corpuscles, 45 per cent. 

Red — 1. Shape=circvLl&Y (in all mammalia, except camel and 
llama=oval), bi-concave — form is same in arterial and 
venous blood. 

2. Size= 2 ^ 1 in. — ^i^ in. diameter, average ¥ gVo m - — 
3 3*0 in., thickness=i— \ transverse diameter — " cen- 
tral depression/' 

In elephant and sloth exceed human, g^^ in., in some mammals, 
equal human or smaller — musk deer smallest, TI ^j in., — 
birds' exceed- mammals'. 

Human not distinguishable from most domestic animals'. 

Hemoglobin distinguishable from other coloring matter 

— color of haeniatin not due to iron — oxidation of H 

dependent upon presence of iron. 

3. Sexual Difference — In male more abundant than in 
female. 

4. Origin — embryonic: mesoblastic cells, lymph-glands, 
liver, spleen, fission of nucleated cells — post-embryonic: 
vaso-formative cells (Kanvier), connective- tissue cor- 
puscles, red bone-marrow cells, nucleus of white cor- 
puscle (spleen), Hayem's blood plaques, G-aule's " am- 
nienzellen," Neumann's corpuscles. 

5. Fate — death in spleen=mechanical, in liver, disinte- 
grated products utilized in forming new corpuscles, bile- 
jDigment and urine-pigment. (?) 

6. Development of- — colorless, yellow, red (foetus -^ in. 
long) — after 3° week until 8° week, size=30-100 per 
cent, larger than in adult, shape=circular, ovoid, glob- 
ular — at 4 C week, all nucleated, at 3° month \ — \ 
nucleated, at birth nucleated are rare. 

7. Composition — albuminous matter, coloring matter= 
hemoglobin, its affinity for oxygen. 

8. Structure — class l=homogeneous=:stroma and hemo- 
globin, class 2z=granular and nucleated, class 3=nucle- 
olinated (Boettcher), class 2 and 3 denied by Landois 
and others — enveloping membrane. (?) 

9. Relative number — before and after meals. 

White : red :: 1 : 330, :: 1 : 335 :: 1 : 500. 
10. Function — convey oxygen to system — great absorbing 
power — remove impurities — respiratory organs of cells 
— CO 2 causes to swell, O to contract. (?) 



54 

11. Color — reduced ha?inoglobin=purple (venous): oxy- 
haenioglobinz=searlet (arterial). 

12. Etsisto.net to solvents — transfusion. 

Colorless — 1. Shape — globular, irregular — ainceboid movements,, 
diapedesis. 

2. .N umber — fewer than red corpuscles — increased by food, 
by hemorrhage, by drugs, etc. — variation with a^e. sex. 
health. 

3. Size — larger than red. ,v . in. 

4. Origin — similar leucocytes in lymph, connective tissue, 
bone-marrow, glands, and elsewhere. 

5. Structure — mass of nucleated bioplasm devoid of en- 
velope. 

6. Fate — source of red corpuscles (?). source of new tis- 
sues ( /). death in spleen, in thyroid body. 

Plaques— a third histological element — function in coagulation. 
researches of Bizzozero — relation between plaques and 
clot=chemical. not histological (Kemp) — more numer- 
ous than leucocytes. 
C. Granular matter. 

XT. LYMPHATICS. 

1. Origin: plexiform — lacunar=juice space-. 

2. Structure: walls: eentral=tunica intima. tesselated epithelium 
— elastic fibre: t. rnedia=uiuscular; peripheral=t. adventitia= 
areolar, cf. veins: general deficiency in muscle elements: lymphatic 
hearts in Eana have short muscular laminae — lyniph-capillaries= 
single nucleated cell-plates, cf. blood-capillaries — valves: frequency. 
structure=sirnple duplicatures of t. intima. opening centrad — dila- 
tion of lumen just centrad of valves — stomata. 

3. Course: maximum distance from blood-capillaries, c£ villi — effi- 
ciency in preventing stagnation in transudate — great serous cavities 
=lymphatic lacunae — ultimate discharge of lymph from caudal ex- 
tremities, abdomen and sinistral regions cephalad of abdomen, via 
Thoracic Duct into v. subclavia sinistra: from dextral regions ceph- 
alad of abdomen via Lymphatic Duct into v. subclavia dextra — re- 
lations of T. D. and L. D. with meson, with thoracic viscera, and 
with vv. subclavian. 



56 

4. Development : extent of development in any organ is proportional 
to development of blood-vessels in same organ. 

0. Distinctive Characters : anatomical; origin, where blood-pressure 
is considerable. '.transudation; termination, where blood- pressure is 
minimum=in veins; relation with serous cavities through stomata; 
thinness of walls; frequency of inosculation , relation with L. glands; 
physiological ; indirect withdrawal of lymph from blood-vessels and 
intestines; direct return to blood-vessels. 

6. Forces of L. Circulation: constant; endosmosis; pressure on dif- 
fusion septum due to osmosis, intermittent; muscular contraction, 
v. villi; muscular pressure, T. D. compressed by aorta at each pul- 
sation; movements of respiration; suction in T. D. and L. D. 

7. Function : removal of transudate — necessity for transudate to sup- 
ply nutriment to body- cells; regulated by laws of pressure — dialysis 
— osmosis — quantity of daily transudate — rapidity of absorption- 
hypodermic injections — influence of nervous system upon absorp- 
tion . 

XYI. LYMPH-GLANDS. 

1. Distribution: angles of limbs, axilla, groin, mesentery, abdomen, 
thorax, cervex, etc. 

2. Form : oval, circular, reniform. 

3. Structure: capsule; peripheral layer and its relations; central 
layer, prolongations centrad=septa; inosculations of septa=: trabe- 
cule — interstitial pulp=gland tissue=adenoid tissue of His — fibres 
from trabecule form reticulum — inter-reticular tracts=vascular 
areas= a medullary cords," intercommunication, opacity — transpar- 
ent spaces between cords=lymph tracts=lymph paths, tubular, 
lacuniform, relations with afferent and efferent vessels — lymph 
sinuses between capsule and gland-tissue, intercommunication. 

4. Lymph: fluid plasma with lymph-corpuscles (leucocytes) — course 
of lymph through gland; from afferent vessel to cortical sinus, 
medullary sinus, plexus at hilum, efferent vessel — relation of 1. 
corpuscle with blood-corpuscle — origin of 1. corpuscles, 1. glands, 
adenoid tissue, fission of lymph corpuscles. 



58 

XVII. SPLEEV 

1. Position: relations with abdominal regions, stomach, pancreas, 
kidney — blood-supply. 

2. Chemical Composition: special proteid (alkaloid albumen) asso- 
ciated with iron (ferruginous proteid); spleen ash yields large per 
cent, of Ka and P. small per cent, of K and CI: richness of S. in 
extractives. 

3. Structural Characters: periphery ^enveloping capsule, ectal 
coatz=peritoneal, ental coat=fibrous, elastic; interior (a) retiform 
septa— reflections of ental capsular coat, (b) spleen-pulp; cylindiie 
aggregations of adenoid tissue; artery, central or eccentric: capil- 
laries, inosculation with connective tissue, loss of distinctive wall : 
expansion of peripheral coat of arterioles=malpighian corpuscles 
connective-tissue cells, nucleated, branched; corpuscles, (a) blood, 
red and white, (b) large colorless corpuscles in which red corpus:^- 
are visible; veins, origin in intra-splenic sinuses==termini of capil- 
lar:— 

4. Physiological Characters: turgescence after meak=3vaso-inot 

phenomenon — removal without obvious change in animal economy, 
slight increase in activity of lymphatics — blood-forming organ 
birth-place of white blood-corpuscle, of red corpuscle (?) — blood- 
destroying organ grave of white blood-corpuscle and of red cor- 
puscle. 

XTIII. RESPIRATION. 

Air Passages. 

Nares, v. Smell, p. Larnyx, v. Voice, p. 

Trachea — position — relations with oesophagus — length — structure 
of walls, distinctive layer=15-20 incomplete cartilaginous rings, 
hiatus upon dorsal surface, union of free ends of cartilage by plain 
muscle-fibre, peripheral layers connective tissue. n\ 
=plain fibre, longitudinal, circular, inter- cartilaginous, e 7 _ ; ~ 
=longiUidinul fibre, mucous fayer«— submucosa, mucosa, lining col- 
umnar epithelium with outward vibrating cilia. 

Bronchi — Origin — branches, angle of divergence — relativ T bxj :sure 
to injury from foreign bod: ea — structure, cartilaginous rings, elas- 
tic, ciliated, outward vibrations of cilia — sub-divisions, lobular 



60 

bronchi, terminal bronchi, relation with alveolar passages and pul- 
monary lobulett-s. 

Structure of the Lungs. 

1. Pleura — layers — reflections — inter-lobular septa — pleural sacs, 
dextral. sinistral, their integrity essential to respiration — pleurisy 

2. Divisions, right, left, relative size — lobes; lobulettes: infandib- 
ula, convoluted structure, cf entire lung of frog : air-eells='-77- 
veoh, location, size sV^rhr ^i elastic walls, muscular fibre, tis- 
sue always on stretch, thickness of walls ^^, in., capillary 
plexuses, lining of pavement epithelium, innervation. 

3. Capacity, residual air, supplemental. complemental, tidal — rela- 
tive amount exchanged at each respiration — extreme breathing 
capacity not increased by habit or practice (Flint). 

Mechanism of Respiration. 

Movements of chest — extreni:::— : ribs raised by contraction of 
external intercostal muscles, depressed by internal — auxiliary 
tion of abdominal and pectoral muscles — elastic tension of tissue 
— movements of diaphragm: depressed by "Diaphragm Pill; 
devoted (a) by atmospheric pressure to fill vacuum due to con- 
traction of lung tissue, (b) by upward pressure of abdominal 
viscera due to action of abdominal muscles — expansion of lungs 
accelerated by vacuum in pleural sac — automaticity of respira- 
tion — the respiratory centre — rhythm ;: respiration — duration of 
inspiration : duration of expiration:=10 : 12 — pneumograph. 

Three Types of Respiration. 

1. Abdominal, exclusive in children under three years=type among 
wild Indians. 

2. Inferior C lost al=di Aphragmatic=:: : n 7 C rib caudad, predomi- 
nates in male . 

3. Superior Costal=costal=from 7° rib cephalad, predominates in 
female. 

Stages of Respiration, 

1. Mechanical, atmospheric pressure 

2. Simple diffusion of air. 

3. Osmosis== diffusion through cell tissue; Dalton's law. 

Frequency of Respiratory Movements. 
Average 20 per minute, min.=9 7 max. =44. 



62 

Modified chiefly by condition of blood, by age, by condition of sys- 
tem, by sex. 

Expired and Inspired Air. 

1. Expired — temperature 90 c — 100 c F. — saturated with, moisture 
— carbonic acid exceeds vol. of oxygen inspired (day), reverse 
(night) — nitrogen — oxygen — animal matter=organic alkaloid, 
not a microbe. 

Sexual difference in amount of carbonic acid. 

2. Inspired — temperature variable — moisture variable — oxygen 
inspired exceeds amount expired — nitrogen inspired equals 
amount expired, temporary variations. 

Chemical changes attending Respiration. 

1. Condition of in blood : action of oxygen upon ha?matin cry>- 
t Lb — solution of erases in a cnven menstruum modified bv tension. 

CO «. J 

temperature, etc. — in blood not in simple solution: in com- 
bination with ha?mocrlobin=oxvha9moo-lobin: readiness of dis- 
sociation. its relation to tension of in plasma. 

2. Condition of CO 2 , in blood: probable union with sodium=HNa 
C0 3 . — probable action of haemoglobin. 

3. Respiratory changes in lungs: tendency to equilibrium of ten- 
sion of gases — tension of in venous blood low .-. formation of 

"haemoglobin — tension of CO.,. in v. blood high .\ dissociation 

4 Eespiratory changes in tissues: tension of in arterial blood 

high. - , dissociation and oxidation of tissue — tension of C0 2? in 

transudate high ,\ equilibrium with serum — limit of oxidation 

determined by tissue solely — storage of oxygen in tissues 

Modified respiratory movements 

Cou^hincr. sneezing: — laus-hing, crvins; — vawnino- sighing — hie- 
cough, sobbing — reflex character. stimuli=subjective, objective, 
central, peripheral. 

Artificial respiration — Physiology of asphyxia, suffocation, drown- 



ing. 



Preliminary — avoid delay, undue haste, exclusion of air, and im- 
patience. 
Procedure l. c remove obstructions to breathing, mucus, water, etc. 
2. c clear air-passages; tongue held for ward . 
S.^ imitate normal respiration: 10-15 per minute. 



Michigan method — patient ventricumbent r operator astride of 
lumbar region. 

1.^ expand thorax bj raising shoulders (forehead on 

ground), one 9 two, three. 
_ ; impress thorax by pressure of hands against lowei 
ribSj one, two. 
Marshall HaU method — patient ventricumbent. folded coat under 
chest. 

1--° Expand thorax by turning patient on side, his arm 

2. e compress thorax by turning to first position, pres- 
sure on ribs and back. 
Sylvester method — patient dordcumbent. folded coat under 
si: -lirr's. 

I. 4 * expand thorax by drawing arms dorsad and ceph- 

_ B compress thorax by pressing elbows against lower 
• ribs. 

Howard method — patient doracumbent T folded coat under false 
ribs, arms lateracL 

1 compress thorax by pressure against lower ribs. 
2.° expand thorax by remoTing pressure, elasticity of 

FeWs forced respiration — available under expert supervision, 
special apparatus required. 
After treatment — warmth, fresh air, quiet. 

5JX. VOICE. 
Mechanism =Larynx=reed-instruzi enl 

< .;-.r til .-.i'r*— -oid (Adam's apple), ventral, cephalic. 

lateral; surfaces, ectal=convex, ental — t ncave; ~-shapedsinus 

a.: T r -Tr:-:rjiil:: i:^: — . ;; .". ■ :-;::::: :y\ '.?.'. :-.i..: i:rs.vi :•: 
th yi ' : id — arytenoid, posit: id ::-~::i it mal m (gin : thyroid 
\-i iTililii :: :rl:::l: :::Li = ::iii^v.-:.: . " .— :-.\" 1.^:1. ~::?.\ 
i:::t>jt: i:: .\ :::-.: -i:^ _ :.\-._ 'l^*~^-~* ;Zii*L ::r::l:^ — :: 
oantonni upon cephalic anjrle ox arytenoid — inter-articulations 

MuMjle?— .v:~::l Li. rrii:r^rl:L :-.:i: : . :i n.:~,i::::: 






66 

Yocal cords— elastic ligaments from vocal processes to apex of V- 
sinus in thyroid cartilage (15 mm. $ , 11 mm. ? ), convergence of 
ventral ends, approximation, divarication, and tension due to 
movements of arytenoid cartilages — enveloping membrane, mesal 
aperture = glottis — innervation by the vagi — false cords not 
concerned in phonaiion, glandular function — valvular action of 
epiglottis. 

Phonation. 

Vibrations by blast against tense cords through narrowed glottis 
— vowel sounds=musical vibrations, consonants=noises — air pas- 
sages (pharynx, buccal cavity, nares) =resonators. 

Resonance intensifies — form of resonator for different vowels, pitch, 
timbre, etc. 

Pitch, dependence upon tension of cords, length of cords, force of 
blast — range of voice; quality of voice, harmonics; falsetto (el- 
liptical glottis). 

Loudness, dependence upon blast and resonator. 

Speaking \oice=sliding from pitch to pitch— agency of tongue, 
teeth, lips in speech — relation of voice to thought — influence of 
pitch and timbre in speech. 

Singing yoiee=leaping from pitch to pitch. 

XX- VENTILATION. 

"Vitiating Products — organic products of respiration:=poisonous 
alkaloids, organic particles mechanically separated from body, 
organic products of cutaneous respiration, organic matter and dust 
from floors — disease germs — C0 2 in expired air=.6 cu. ft. — .8 cu. 
ft. per hour (adults), .3-5 cu. ft. (children) — water by lungs and 
skin — products of combustion by stoves and lamps, 1 cu. ft. coal 
consumes 8 cu. ft. air (Parkes) — " ground-air " from sewage, drain- 
age, vaults, cellars, etc. 

Estimate of volume of Pure air required per individual, based 
upon presence of C0 2 . 

Vol. of C0 2 in "pure" air=.05 in 1000. "Koom is close " when 
C0 2 =.7 in 1000. Air is foul when CO a =l. in 1000. 



68 

Application, if CO.,— 7. in 1000, each adult requires 3000-4000 cu. ft. pure air per hour. 
" " =1. " " " " " 1200-1600 "• ■' " " " 

'« " =1.5" "' " " " 600-800 " " " " " 

" " = 9. " " " " " 400-530 " " " '" " " 

Floor- space should not be less than -^ of cubic space. 

12 adults in room 30x40x12 ft, produce 1 part C0 3 in 1000, if air 

is changed once per hour. 
24-30 children (under 8 years), or 14-20 youths (12-16 years) will 

produce the same. 

Temperature of Rooms — should not enervate or stimulate, should 
be 65°— 70° F. — influence of temperature upon capacity for mois- 
ture. 

Conditions sought by ventilation. 

1 . Removal of impure air. 

2. Abundant supply of fresh air. 

3. Suitable temperature. 

Warming by Radiation and by Heated Air. 

Steam radiators — hot-air furnaces — stoves, their conversion into 
furnaces — quality of air, dust, poisonous gases, moisture, etc. — 
quantity of air accessible to heated surface — economy and con- 
venience of the respective methods — removal of foul air from 
floor — diffusion of gases — confusion of warming and ventilating. 

Construction of Apparatus for Tentilation. 

Eooms alternately occupied, and vacant — study rooms, recitation 
rooms — simple methods of making windows available. 

XXI. ANIMAL HEAT. 

Sources. 

Chemical action in tissues, other causes than production of car- 
bonic acid, e. g. formation of organic alkaloids, secretions, salts. 

Physical processes, conservation of mechanical energy of viscera. 
muscles, joints, etc. 

Regulation of Temperature. 

Cerebral Heat-Centres=general regulators, influence of climate, 
summer and winter, cf . metabolic activity of tissues. 

Yaso-niotor system— local regulator, effect of local application of 
heat and cold, dilatation or contraction of cutaneous vessels, insen- 



70 

sible transpiration — relation of respiration to animal heat — rela- 
tion of circulation (heart beat) to animal heat — serious results 
from slight change in temperature of body, too elevated temper- 
ature=muscle-poison, too depressed=blood-poison. 

Modifying Conditions, 

Metabolism of tissues, muscular activity, glandular secretions, e. g. 
warmest blood in hepatic vein, cerebral (mental) excitement, loss 
of blood*. 'decreased metabolism (?) hence demand for artificial 
heat after serious injury — food — age — condition of skin — position 
of organs in body, increase of temperature from periphery to cen- 
tral parts — diurnal variation — clothing as it affects radiation, 
circulation, etc. — position of body, extended or drawn together — 
drinks as they affect transpiration — medicines — general health= 
nervous condition (?) 

XXII. SKIN. 

Epidermis=Cuticle. 

Peripheral layers (a) stratum corneum=horny layer— exudation 

from adjacent parts. 

No blood vessels — no nerves — no lymphatics — exclusively cells — not trans- 
formed "rete mucosum." 

(b) S. lucidum, clear, transparent cells. 

Internal layers " rete mucosum" (a) S. granulosum, nucleated, 

fusiform cells, (b) S. malpighii, nucleated polyhedral cells 

pigments, red, black, yellow=red+0. Callous epidermis=corn. 

Dermis = Cutis. 

Super ficial=papillary layer, looped capillaries and touch cor- 
puscles. 

Smallest papillae upon face— largest on palm of hand, sole of foot — lines on 
palm of hand=grooves between compound papillae. 

Deep=reticulated or fibrous layer — interlacing white and elastic 
fibres — non-striated muscle, 

Abundance near "sebaceous glands, " contractions produce goose flesh. 

Sub-cutaneous Tissue — connective tissue enclosing rhomboidal 
spaces, not distinct from dermis. 

Appendages. 

Nails — root — border — free edge — lunula, slight vascularity of sub- 
jacent structure — layers nearly same as epidermis— development 



72 

in embryo — mode of growth, malpighian layer stationary, horny 
layer grows — life of nail-cell=4 months (summer) to 5 months 
(winter). 
Hairs — general distribution — characteristic direction upon surface — 
hair follicle=inversion of dermis, three membranes: external 
^inelastic fibre, blood vessels, nerves; mzcMe=:transverse nucle- 
ated fibre; m£er%aZ=hyaline=basement membrane of dermis — 
root-sheath ; ectal cells=s. malpighii, mzcZc^e=non-nucleated 
scales of Henle, e^a?=Huxley's membrane — hair ; external= 
imbricated cells .*. roughness of surface, internal=longitu(imeL[ 
fibres, these contain pigment and a few air globules, central= 
medulla, traceable nearly entire length, nucleated rounded cells, 
pigment, numerous air globules — elasticity — transection: straight 
hair=round, curled=oval, frizzled=flat — growth by imbibition 
from papilla? — color due to pigment — sudden blanching, pigment 
not diminished, greater part of medulla filled with air; possible 
cause — loss of hair from fright. 

Sebaceous glands — distribution — lubricate skin., gloss of hair. 

Sudoriparous glands — special development in axilla — peculiar ex- 
cretion, volatile compounds of fatty acids — excretion modified by 
medicines, poisons, disease — spiral ducts, lining pavement epi- 
thelium, orifices in grooves between rows of papilla?, always oblique 
— secretion=water and soluble salts, no fatty matter = filtering 
mechanism — absorbents, increase of weight from bathing — insen- 
sible perspiration, nervous mechanism of — active cells probably 
epithelium of secreting coils, (10,000 sq. ft.) — congestion of skin 
attending exercise favors increased activity of glands, hence re- 
duction of temperature and rapid voidance of effete matter= 
products of disintegrated muscular tissue — relative elimination 
by lungs and by skin=7 : 11 — baths medicated, hot, cold, action 
as nerve-tonics .*. increased metabolism of tissues, regulators of 
circulation — cleanliness, action of soap upon excretions of sebaceous 
glands, removal of epithelium, congestion of unprotected dermis 
— injury when chill accompanies bath — inflammation resulting 
from application of heat to chilled extremities=chilblain — con- 
ducting power of different textures ; their relative value as arti- 
cles of clothing — influence of color upon absorbent power of fab- 
rics — specific energy of skin nerves, cold nerves over broad areas, 
warm nerves over small areas. 



74 

General Offices of Skin. 

Respiratory — secretory, perspiration, sebaceous matter — protective 
to subjacent structures, sense-organs — regulatory of body-temper- 
ature — absorptive. 

XXIII. KIDNEY. 

1. Figure, lateral aspect=convex, mesal aspect=coneave=hilum . 

2. Size, 4x2x1 in. 

3. Relations, with meson, with abdominal regions, each with its 
platetrope. 

4. Renal capsules=tunica fibrosa, coats, ectal and ental ; relations, 
peripheral and central. 

5. Structure : 

A. Macroscopic: peripheral cortex=granular (substantia corti- 
cosa) — central medulla=pyramidal (substantia medullaris) — 
infundibula, cephalic, lateral, caudal — relations of calices and 
papillae . 

B. Microscopic: 

1. Cortical zone of a malpighian pyramid, formation, bound- 
aries, medullary rays, blood-vessels, v. arteries. 

2. Medullary zone of a malpighian pyramid, boundaries — 
tubuli uriniferi, dichotomosis, radial arrangement of ramuli, 
— papillae, relation and function ; composition of pyramid ; 
straight tubuli uriniferi, straight blood-vessels, nerves, 
lymphatics, apices of cortical pyramids — Columns of Ber- 
tin, relations. 

6. Vessels: arteries; rami at hilum, arrangement in substantia 
medullaris — relations in s. corticosa; flexure of artery at bound- 
ary line, convexity of arch peripherad, concavity=centrad; arteri- 
olae rectae given off centrad, relations with s. medullaris; afferent 
ramuli given off peripherad, relations with cortical pyramids; 
non-anastomosis of terminal capillaries; formation of Malpighian 
bodies ; relations of afferent and efferent vessels — formation of 
renal vein — tubuli uriniferi; origin, Bowman's capsule; course; 
loop of Henle, distinctive cells, rods of Heidenhain, seven changes 
in lumen oft. uriniferi; convergence at papillae; relations of calices 
with papillae; discharge through papillae into pelvis — ureters; 
infundibular expansion in pelvis of kidney; course of ureter; 



76 

rhythmic contraction of walls; relations with urocystis — urethra. 

7. Functions; filtration (Malpighian bodies) excretion (tubular 
epithelium) — urine ; general character, color, odor, salinity, 
acidity, gravity, composition=water, inorganic salts, urea and 
allied compounds, organic acids, pigment — character of urine 
dependent on food (carnivora=acid, herbivora=ralkaline, in 
starving herbivora=acid) — renal excretion affected by blood- 
pressure, by condition of skin, by state of mind — quantity in 
child, in adult — micturition=reflex. 

8. Development of kidney. 

XXIY. NERYE CELL. 

Structure. 

Cell-substance, fine granular, albuminoid — nucleus — nucleolus — 
pigment grains — absence of cell- wall. 

Size. 

Largest in ventral horns of spinal cord. 

Prolongations of Cell. 

Structure same as cell-substance — number, one or two (generally) 
= u unipolar " and " bipolar " cells — the cinerea of the cerebrum 
has cells with several= a multipolar " — anastomosis of branches 
from prolongations=plexuses — one prolongation from " multi- 
polar" cell=distinctive=axis cylinder. 

Distinctive Cells of Dorsal Portion of Spinal Cord. 

Not connected with nerve fibre. 

Ganglion. 

Structure=collection of nerve-cells — function as registering, trans- 
mitting, and trophic or nutritive centres — effect of removing the 
ganglion from dorsal root of spinal nerve, Wallerian law of degen- 
eration — trophic centres of spinal cord in cerebrum, in Clarke's 
column, in cord itself. 

XXY. SPINAL NERYES. 

Structure of Nerve. 

1. Kinds of neurine — (a) alba=nerve fibre only — (b) cinerea= 
fibre, interstitial matter, nerve-cells, primitive nerve-fibrils. 



78 

2. General character of nerve-fibre, shape, arrangement in bundles 
or tracts (funiculi), a ribbon of bioplasm joining peripheral and 
central cells — interchange of fibres from one tract to another — 
relative distribution of large and small fibre to cutaneous and to 
muscular regions — average size of fibres, variations in different 
regions of the same tract. 

3. Histology — peripheral sheath=perineurium, reflections around 
fascicle = endoneurium, fibre-sheathz=neurilemma — neuralgia — 
fibre, central axis-cylinder, fibrillae, transverse striae, bi-convex 

nodes; enveloping medullary layer= white substance of Schwann, 
arrow-markings, its insulating orifice, its absence at origin, at ter- 
mination of nerve, and in " non-medullated " nerves=embryonic ; 
peripheral neurilemma=sheath of Schwann, union with border of 
biconvex bodies; nerve compartment, presence of one or two 
nuclei entad of neurilemma, cf . muscle compartment. 

Peripheral Termination of Fibre. 

1. Formation of "terminal plexuses " — division of fibre and distri- 
bution of ultimate fibrils to anatomical elements of tissue. 

2. Correspondence in function of several fibrils to axis-cylinder of 
undivided fibre. 

3. Disappearance of medullary layer and blending of neurilemma 
with sarcolemma near terminal region of nerve. 

4. Persistence of " axis-cylinder." 

5. Ultimate structure of " Pacinian Bodies/' " Tactile Corpuscles/' 
" Terminal Bulbs." 

6. Direction and disposal of terminal fibre in muscles — " Terminal 
Plates." 

Roots of Spinal Nerves. 

Dorsal; relative size — bi-lobed ganglion, its cells devoid of axis- 
cylinder prolongations; its uni-polar and bi-polar cells; its nutri- 
tive function — non-union of nerve-fibre with cells (mammalia), 
characteristic union of same (pisces) — enlargement of root by 
additional fibre from ganglion — double origin of fibre corres- 
ponding to bi-lobed ganglion — characteristic location of ganglion 
— fibres enter cord between dorsal and lateral columns; some 
enter the cinerea, some enter both cinerea and alba, some enter 
ventral horn of cord — afferent function of dorsal root, sensory 
fibres of skin and tissues, tactile nerves. 



80 

Yentral; absence of ganglion — collocation of fibre into two bundles 
— union of the cinerea of " ventral horns " of spinal cord by fibres 
of ventral root; white commissure of the cord — functions of fibres 
=efferent to voluntary muscles, to certain plain muscles, e. g. 
bladder, vaso-constrictor and dilator fibres, secretory fibres to 
sudoriparous glands, nutritive fibres. 

Union of Roots into Compound Nerve. 

Kelative length of roots, consequent direction — connection of fila- 
ments with sympathie system — hygienic considerations. 

Number of Pairs. 

Plan of naming from the number of the vertebra cephalad of which 
the nerve issues — special branches and their distribution. 

Union of Nerves into Plexuses. 

Cervical plexus=c 15 c 2 , c 3 , c 4 — brachial=c 3 , c 6 , c 7 , th l; th 2 — 
intercostal^ th 3 . th 12 — lumbar^rlj . . . .1 5 — sacral=s t . . . . s s 
— coccygeal=c 1 , c 2 . 

General Properties. 

Irritability, exhausted by experiments, destroyed by woorara — con- 
ductivity, modified by temperature — reunion after separation — 
paralysis, nervous, muscular — distinctive direction in which 
" nerve wave " is propagated in sensitive and in motor nerves — 
rate of transmission of energy=100-120 ft. per sec — duration of 
impression after removal of exciting agent — nature of " nerve 
wave " same in afferent and in efferent nerves — action of galvanic 
current upon nerves. 

Function of Spinal Nerves. 

General — special. 

XXTI. SPINAL CORD (Myel.) 

Genesis. 

Involution of epiblast, tubular — three elements, 1. lining of central 
canal=ciliated columnar epithelium, 2. enveloping cinerea, 3. 
peripheral alba. 

Position — length . 

Embryo — adult . 



82 

•General Structure. 

Meninges=three membranes, dura, arachnoid, pia — mesal fissures; 
ventral, dorsal — columns, ventral, dorsal, lateral — Flechsig's 
grouping of fibres — myelocoele=primitive central canal — inter- 
communication of fibre with cinerea and with longitudinal col- 
umns — commissural union of cell with cell — blood-vessels. 



TRANSECTION OF SPINAL, CORD. 

Special Structure. 

Increase of cinerea at cervical and at lumbar enlargements — gradual 
decrease of the alba from cephalic region caudad. 

Oinerea — 1. Structure : (a) nerve cells, multipolar, grouped in 
41 horns/' ventral larger, dorsal smaller, (b) nerve fibres radiate 
in transverse plane: 

1. fibres from spinal nerves. 

2. commissural fibres, coordinating the halves of the cord. 

3. irregular fibres. 

% Insensibility to artificial stimuli. 

3. Sensitive Impressions transmitted through the cinerea alone, 
not through the alba. 

Alba — 1. Structure: longitudinal fibres forming " columns/' ven- 
tral, middle, dorsal — fibres from ventral column terminate in oppo- 
site ventral horn. 

2, Motor impulses transmitted through the alba and the cinerea of 
ventral columns, not through either separately. 

Bi-lateral decussation of Motor Fibre in Oblongata. 

Effect of injury to brain — injury to cord below oblongata — longitu- 
dinal division of spinal cord, of oblongata. 



84 

Bi-lateral decussation of Sensitive Fibre throughout Cord. 

Transverse section of lateral half of cord paralyzes motion of same 
side and enfeebles sensibility of opposite side — local hyperes- 
thesia. 

Relative seriousness of Injury to Cord. 

In lumbar and in cervical regions — paraplegia, hemiplegia, total 
and partial. 

Functions of Cord. 

1. Conductive — trophic centres of pyramidal tract=in cerebrum, of 
ventral-root fibre=in Clarke's column, of commissural fibre=in 
cinerea of cord. 

Spinal cord=chief mechanism of communication between brain 
and peripheral nerves, ventro-mesal tract (ventral column) and 
ento-lateral tract (lateral column) convey voluntary impulses 
from cerebrum to motor nerves; ventro-lateral tract (v. c), mixed 
tracts (1. c.) relate cinerea of cord with medulla and with 
ventral root-fibres; dorsi-mesal tracts^G-olf's columns connect 
dorsal roots with oblongata, tactile sensations ; dorsi-lateral tract 
(d. c.) connects dorsal roots with cerebellum; ecto-lateral tract 
(1. c.)=direct cerebellar tract connects dorsal nerve-roots with 
cerebellum — rate of transmission, 7notor=zl0 m. per sec, sensi- 
tive=.\Z-A0 m. per sec. 

2. Reflex Action. 

Irritability of cord increased by strychnine, by injury to peripheral 
nerves — motor-nerve element destroyed by woorara — tetanus — im- 
portance of reflex action in self-preservation in regard to equilib- 
rium and locomotion, in controlling sphincter muscles, etc. — 
summation of stimuli — typical mechanism of reflex action, three 
elements, afferent, transferring, efferent=re/?e# arc — distinctive 
characters, unconsciousness, unlikeness between stimulus and 
effect produced, coordination — inflammation of meninges — exper- 
iments with pithed frog, purposive reflexes: place frog on table, 
extend limb, place dorsicumbent, place on surface of sphere or 
on inclined plane or in basin of water — G-oltz's " croaking " and 
"embracing" experiments — suspend frog by angle of mandible, 
pinch toe slightly, then forcibly; pinch flank; pinch skin near 
anus; apply dilute acid to toe, to thigh, to pubes; repeat stimu- 



86 

his until exhaustion — destroy spinal cord, no response to any 
stimulus — anaesthetize frog, leg responds to stimulus; destroy 
cord, no response — Setschenow's inhibitory centre in mesencephal 
— action of \$> strychnine, of quinine — nature of reflex deter- 
mined by character of stimulus, intensity, application, condition 
of cord (Claude Bernard). 

3. Originating = Independent Centres. 

Pupil-dilating centre — vaso-constrictor, vaso-dilator — sweat centre 
=vaso-motor (?) — sphincter centre. 

XXVII. SYMPATHIC SYSTEM. 

Structure. 

Anatomical elements essentially same as spinal nerves, q. v. — cells 
—multipolar, small, numerous, joined by nerve filaments. 

Relation to Dorsal Roots of Spinal Cord. 

Commissural relations in cervical and in thoracic regions — influence 
upon central system — homology of ganglion of sensitive root 
with sympathic ganglion — sensory fibres from splanchnic centres. 

Distribution. 

Lateral chain of ganglia ventro-laterad of spinal cord, collateral 
ganglia, terminal — to blood-vessels = vaso-motor, to glands, 
to viscera, to mucous membrane, to involuntary muscle, etc. — 
classification of special ganglia with reference to head, neck, 
chest, abdomen, etc. 

Functions. 

Regulatory of nutrition, of secretion — vaso-motor constrictor, dilator, 
cardio-accelerator, cardio-inhibitor — connection with special 
senses, sight, hearing — reflex action ; internal irritation, e. g. 
nausea, etc.; external irritation, e. g. fright, etc.; mutual influ- 
ence of organs — independent, cardiac . ■ . automatism, mesenteric 
.*. peristalsis. 

XXVIII. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN. 

1. Formation of Medullary Plate from epiblast. 

2. Formation of medullary folds and mesal groove. 

3. Closure of medullary folds along dorsimeson= medullary tube 
=neurocoele. 



88 

4. Expansion of walls of cephalic portion of medullary tube= Pri- 
mary Yesicles=encephalocoeles ?i /ore-'ymcfej mid-vesicle, hind- 
vesicle . 

5. Flexures of neuron, fore- vesicle bent ventrad, mid-vesicle con- 
spicuous in line of axon — subsequent flexure of fore-vesicle 
dorsad — cervical tuberosity (7 D week)=angle projecting dorsad 
between bind- vesicle and spinal cord. 

Differentiation of Tesicles into Neuromeres. 

A. Hindvesicle by constriction of walls=2 chambers or segments= 
neuromeres, metencephal and epencephal. 

Metencephal, thinning and blending of roof with vessels of pia= 
metatele: thickened walls and Hoor=ipostoblongata. 

(a) restiform bodies at 3° month, 

(b) ventripyramids at 5° month, 

(c) olivas at 6° month, 
persistent neuroccele=metaco3le (4° ventricle). 

Epencephal, 

largely developed roof ^cerebellum (3° month) mesal lobe first, 

lateral lobes later, 
thinned roof (cephalic part) with -piei=lingula, 
thickened floor and yva\h=preoblo7igata and pons, 
persistent ~D.euroc&le=ep)iccele. 

B. Midvesicle=Mesenceplial. 

xooi=pregeminum, postgeminum and valvula — postcomniissure. 

floor— crura (caudal), 

persistent neuroccele— wzesocoefe (iter). 

C. Forevesicle by constriction of walls=2 neuromeres, diencephal, 

prosenceplial. 

Diencephal. 

caudal roof=papilliform conarium (eye), 

cephalic roof with pia=vascular diatele, 

thickened w&Us=thalami — supracomniissure, medicommissure, 

caudal floor —infundibulum, crura (cephalic), 

cephalic floor =chiasma, 

persistent neuroco3le=cfo"acce?e (3 C ventricle). 



90 

Prosencephal. 

mesal constriction=longitudinal fissure, forms 2 lateral hemi- 
spheres, terina persists, lateral Q.ooYs=striata, 

rapid development of roof and walls caudad=Aera£cere&?'a — sylvian 
fissure, 

fusion of mesal walls with ~pisi=2)roplexus and septum, 

differentiated septum 

caudo-ventral fibre=precoinmissure, 
dorsal fi.bre=callosum and fornix, albicans, 
lateral walls 'persist=septirm, pseudoccele. 

persistent neurocoele=paracceles, cornua, portas, aula. 

Olfactory lobes are not morphological neuromeres (?) rhinocceles. 



XXIX. BRAIN =EXCEPHAL. 

Cerebrum— Enveloping Membranes. 

1. Dura — structure of its two layers — ectal andental surfaces — ad- 
herence to cranial bones— periosteum of cranial bones — internal 
sinuses — reflections and corresponding chambers formed, falx cere- 
bri, falx cerebelli, tentorium. 

2. Arachnoid — extent and character of parietal and of visceral 
layers — arachnoidean spaces, their intercommunication — cerebro- 
spinal fluid, its function — absence of vessels and nerves — func- 
tion as sheath to cerebral nerves. 

3. Pia — extent — vascular structure — vessels — lymphatics — nerves, 
reflections in fissures of brain. 



superfr.onidl f. inflected / precentral °- l^r^ew/ra/ f. 



precentral i 
superfrontal.g. 

medifrontal j 
medifrontal g 
sub/rontal f. 

'presylvuin 
subfrontal g 
operculum 

oroital f. 
orbital sr 



snperccntral f. 
l/f 



subsyLian f. 
preoperculum > 
suboperculum 
Sylvian f. 

postoperculum 
supertemporal f. 




paracentral f. 
ostcentral f. 
parietal g. 
parietal f. 
occipital f. 

paroceipital g. 
paroccipital /!_ 

Sylvian f. 
supertemporal gi 

meditenipardl f, 

? 

subtemporal g. 
cerebellum 
ons 

-oliva 
oblongata 



Lateral view of the brain. 



92 



Structure. 
Hemicerebral lobes prefrontal, postfrontal, parietal, occipital, 
temporal — homology of frontal, parietal and temporal lobes of cere- 
brum with, entire cerebrum of other mammals, occipital lobes pe- 
culiar to man, monkey, seal, cetacea — fissures interlobar sylvian 
(always present), presylvian, central, occipital, exoccipital, in- 
tergyral olfactory, orbital, basisylvian, subsylvian, subfrontal, 
superfrontal, medifrontal, precentral, supercentral, postcentral, par- 
acentral, parietal, paroccipital, lambdoidal, subtemporal, meditem- 
poral, supertemporal — gyres three frontal, superfrontal, medifron 
tal, subfrontal; tivo central, precentral, postcentral, parietal; mar- 
ginal; angular ; three occipital, paroccipital, occipital, suboccipi- 
tal, three temporal, supertemporal, meditemporal, subtemporal — 
peripheral neurine=grey=cinerea=nerve-cells, forms and pro- 
cesses; stratified zones of the cortex; some penetrating white neurine 
— blood capillaries. 

.central L fornix 



pseudoccele 
SUpercallosal f. 
callosal f. 



velum 



paracentral f. 



postcommissure 
thalamus 
supracommis.sure 




terma 

olfactory bulb 

precommissure" 
optic, nerve' 
niedieommissure 
TEMPORAIvJ 

bypopbfsfs mesoccele'tpiccele' 
albicans, oblongata 
myel- 



pital I 



endyma 

-conarium 
cuueus 
OCCIPITAL l 
gemina 



calcarine f. 
vermis 

valvula 
tatelei 
post verm is 
metapore 



myeloccelt 



Mesa-l view of the brain. 
Ental structures — neurine=principally white=alba=fibres T 







m. 



i 

2 



in. in diameter — nerve-centres — commissures, precommissure= 
cephalad of base of fornix=alba, medicommissure:=union of thalami 
=cinerea ? postcommissure=:ventro-cephalad of conarium=albaj 
supracommissure= cephalad of postcommissure — formx=origin in 
hypocamp, loop in albicans, terminus in thalamus — callosum, ex- 



94 

tent, structure=transverse commissure between hemicerebra — 
striatum, its position, arrangement of fibre in bundles, cinerea and 
alba — hypocamp, position in floor of medicornu — cceles; aula= 
mesal, its cephalic border=£er77m=persistent cephalic limit of pri- 
mary encephaloccele — j9ortas=entrances to paracceles — paracoele } 
position, development, boundaries, shape, divisions=precornu (cep- 
halic portion), relations with striatum; medicornu (middle portion) 
direction ventrad into temporal lobe, relations with hypocamp ; post- 
cornu (caudal portion), anthropomorphic character (man, monkey, 
seal, cetacea) — endyma, its coutinuity=rconstant character, imper- 
forate except at metapore. 

General Physiological Action. 

Cerebra not directly essential to life, argument from pathology, 
from experiment — not essential to coordination of movements, e. g., 
somnambulist, hypnotic — general function of conscious intelligence, 
memory, reason, judgment, congenital idocy from imperfect cere- 
bral development (microcephalia) — distinctively psychic functions 
of frontal lobes, inhibitory centre — distinction between mechan- 
ism for execution (reflex, automatic) and mechanism for origina- 
tion (volition), decerebrized frog executes movements like entire 
frog except difference in stimuli required. " Afferent impulses 
equally essential with efferent in complex body-movements/' 

Automatic cerebration, " absent-mindedness," reflex cerebration 
— psycho-physiology of laughter — incompatibility of excessive emo- 
tion and intellection — sleep, hypnotism, mesmerism, somnambulism 
— general insensibility to mechanical irritation, sensibility to elec- 
trical irritation. — cerebration conditioned upon proper blood-supply 
(Brown-Sequard) — cerebration attended by heat (Schiff) — estima- 
tion of cerebration by amount of sulphates and phosphates elimi- 
nated (Byasson). 

Physiological topography of cerebrum determined by excision, by 
lesions, and by faradization — experiments of Ferrier, Hitzig and 
Fritsch — relations of cortical areas to basal ganglia=centres — 
motor areas in the central gyres — speech area in the operculum, 
aphasia from lesion in region of the insula, ataxic aphasia=inability 
to execute movements of speech, amnesic aphasia=inability to 
recall words, paraphasia=inability to associate idea with proper 
word — visual area in angular gyre and occipital lobes (?), ivord- 



96 

blindness=ma})ilitj to see words and symbols but speech, is nor- 
mal, psychic-blindness — auditory area in supertemporal gyre, word- 
deafness — gustatory and olfactory area in the uncus — tactile area 
in the hypocamp — occipital lobe does not originate muscular 
contractions, distinctively anthropomoi^hic — striatum=motor 
centre, stimulation causes general muscular contraction of opposite 
side, cf. stimulation of entire motor cortex; specialized movements 
not excited. • .integration of differentiated cortex^ forced movements 
from injury to striatum, rotation of body, somersaults, pleurotho- 
tonos, spasmodic action of face and neck; flexors rather than exten- 
sors stimulated — centre of psycho-motor zones of cortex. 

Thalamus — Position in the brain and in the diencephal; anatomi- 
cal relations with striatum, fornix, velum, conarium, pregemculatuni, 
postgeniculatum, optic tract, persistent diacoele, infundibulum, 
chiasma. 

Strueture=intimate mixture of alba and cinerea — postcommissure 
at its caudal boundary=alba; medicommissure=fusion with its 
platetrope=cinerea. 

Func tionz= sensory centre, each affects the opposite side of the body 
=crossed action — area of cutaneous sensation — probable relation to 
sight*. 'optic tract has origin fibres in the pregeniculatum and in 
the postgeniculatum — relation of tactile sensation to prehension — 
receiving centre before transmitting to cortical centres— cew£re in 
transitu — clinical evidence that thalami=centres of smell, sight, 
hearing. 

Gemina — Position in the mesenceplial; the developed and differ- 
entiated roof and walls of the primary midvesicle ; relations with the 
optic tract and the persistent mesoccele — cephalic lobe=pregemi- 
num, caudal=postgeniinuni. 

Structure — periphery =alba, interior=:cmerea: commissural fibres 
relate with the cerebellum (prepeduncle), the thalami, and the 
optic tracts. 

Functions — susceptible to mechanical, chemical, and electrical irrita- 
tion — pregeminuni=m7^foYon/ centre, equilibration centre; pro- 
longed irritation produces rigid flexure of body dorsad, (opistho- 
tonos) jaws clinched, pupils dilated: motor centre for extensor mus- 
cles, motor action not confined to either side of body — coordinates 



98 

movements of eyeballs and pupils — registers visualsensory impulses 
but is not seat of vision, blindness due to interruption of tract — cir- 
culation (blood-pressure) and respiration (frequency) affected. -.an 
emotional centre (?) — postgeniinum=sensory centre, irritation 
attended with various cries and noises. 

Cerebellum — Position in the epencephal ; relations through prepe- 
duncles with pregeminum, through medipeduncles with pons, 
through postpeduncles with oblongata with labyrinthine ramus of 
auditory nerve — persistent neurocce\e=epiccele. 

Structure — ?o5es=median prevermis, postvermis, 2 lateral — foliums 
— microscopic, ecfo?=cinerea, 3 layers, ew^aZ^alba=arbor vitae, 
and cinerea=dentate nidus. 

Functions — general=conjomt action of cerebellum, gemina and pons 
in coordination of movements — special=l&bj rinXlime equili- 
bration due to its anatomical relations with the semicircular 
canals; injury to the prevermis causes loss of equilibrium ventrad 
.'.body is thrown ventrad; injury to the postvermis, loss dorsad 
.'.body is rotated dorsad; injury to lateral lobe causes body to 
rotate later ad toward injured side — reflex and automatic movements 
begun under direction of will — no relation to sexual functions. 

Oblongata — Position in the metencephal — ectal origin of cranial 
nerves ex. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5 — persistent neuroccele=metaccefe. 

Structure — macroscopic, ventripyraniis, oliva, restiforme, dor- 
sipyramis — microscopic, ect&l— alba, ental=cinerea, increase in 
quantity cephalad — decussation of pyramids. 

Functions — the oblongata=aggregation of nerve centres — res- 
piratory centre — deglutition centre — nausea centre — saliva-secre- 
tion centre — cardio-accelerating centre — cardio -inhibitory centre, 
vaso- motor centre, vaso-constrictor, and vaso-dilator — diabetic 
centre — closure of eye-lids and pupil-dilating centre — phonation 
and articulation centre — sneezing and coughing centre — sweat 
centre — muscular tonicity centre — tetanic centre. 

XXX. CRANIAL NERYES. 

General Characters. 

Homologized as spinal nerves — correspondence of structure and 
arrangement with spinal nerves when correspondence in function 



100 

— ectocranial origin at cranial foramina — classification, ana- 
tomical, the cephalo-caudal order of ectal origin, 1 . . . 12, physio- 
logical, basis=function, e. g. Nerves of special sense, etc. 
N. B. The histogeny and the morphology of the olfactory and 
the optic exclude them from the list of nerves, v. Development 
of Brain. 

XXXI. NERTES OF SPECIAL SENSE. 

General Character. 

Not sensitive — non-excitable — no sensation of pain or of touch 
when irritated — section does not affect sensibility of neighboring 
regions — tracts or commissures rather than nerves proper. 
Olfactory =1° p'r. 

Origin=three-cornered prismatic tract, whose terminus= u olfac- 
tory bulb "; lateral root traced to the uncus, mesal root to the 
striatum ; no functional chiasm in the precommissure; anatomi- 
cal relations, limited distribution — relative development in other 
animals — effect of section. 

Distribution of terminal fibres to schneiderian membrane, cf. sense 
of Smell, p. 

Function to convey impulses from terminal fibres to olfactory cen- 
tre ; normal stimulus=gaseous odorous particles only — hyper- 
osmia, anosmia. 

Optic=2° p'r. 

Optic tract — four fold ovigm=thalamus, pregeniculatum, post 
geniculatum, pregeminum — course around the dorso-lateral 
border of the prepeduncle — union of two tracts in chiasma, par- 
tial decussation of fibre, complete decussation of fibre (Biesia- 
decki, Bastian), non-decussating fibres cross in pregeminum to 
opposite hemicerebrum, Charcot's scheme; physiological and 
pathological evidence. 

Distribution to retina, cf. sense of Sight, p. 

Function to convey impulses from retina to visual centre ; normal 
stimulus=light-waves only. 

Auditory=Acustic=8° p'r. 

Auditory tract from auditory nidus in the oblongata, with ectal 
origin between oliva and restiforme at caudal border of pons — 



102 

cortical roots in the auditory area — development from metence- 

phal. 

Distribution to acoustic mechanism of the ental ear, v. sense of 
Heaiing. p. 

Function to convey impulses from terminal filaments to the audi- 
tory centre; normal stirnulus=sound-waves only. 

XXXII. NERTES OF MOTION. 

Oculo-Motor=3 : p'r. 

Or\gm=nidus in the floor of the mesoccele; motor centre in the 
pregeniinum. 

Distribution to muscles of eye-hall, ex. external rectus and supe- 
rior oblique, to the sphincter of the pupil, to the ciliary muscles. 

Fnnction=exclusively motor, controls motions of eye-ball ex. lat- 
eral abduction and rotation, raising the eye-lid, sphincter motion 
of iris=reflex from retina, and the muscles of accommodation — 
correlation between the eves established through decussation of 
fibres at the nidus — effect of paralysis of the oculo-motor, " stra- 
bismus." "ptosis." 

Trochlear=I° p'r. 

Origin, with 3^ p'r. Distribution, to the superior oblique mus- 
cle of eye. Function, to preserve parallelism of eye-balls in 
horizontal plane, to prevent double vision — involuntary in co- 
ordinated movements. 

Abducens=6° p'r. 

Origin = nidus in common with the Facial in cephalic floor of the 
ejjiccele ; ecfo£=caudal border of pons, laterad of the ventri- 
pyrarnis . 

Distribution, to the external rectus of the eye. 

Function, controls abduction of ball — involuntary in coordinated 
movements — internal strabismus from paralysis of 6 C p'r. 

Facial = 7° p'r. 

Origin, common with Abducens — ecfo/=between oliva and rest- 

iforme. 



104 

Distribution, to muscles of face — anastomoses with Trigeminus 
— mm£=peripheral, large superficial petrosal, stapedius, chorda 
tympani. (?) 

Function = motor, rami from Trigeminus render it in part a sensi- 
tive nerve — general facial expression due to stimulus of 7° p'r 
— paralysis of 7°, eye permanently open, tears not distributed, 
smoothness of forehead, distorted nostril, lip, etc. — may affect 
same side of face, or opposite side because of crossed action of 
nerve — chord a = gustatory, secretory and vaso-dilator. 

Hypoglossal = 12° p'r. 

Origin = oblongata, nidus in caudal floor of metaccele: ectal=dor- 
sad of the pyramis. 

Distribution, to muscles of tongue. 

Function = motor in articulation, mastication, deglutition. 

XXXIII. NERYES OF COMMON SENSATION, 

Trigeminus=5° p'r. 

Origin=trigeminal niduses in the postoblongata by two roots, 
(a) sensitive root, which receives fibres from "gasserian gang- 
lion," (b) motor root, small, cephalic nidus. 

Distribution — three branches, 1. Ophthalmic. 2. Maxillary. 3. 
Mandibular. 

Function — chiefly sensory; gives sensibility to face, to eyelids, to 
prenares, to teeth — acute sensibility to peripheral irritation — 
special advantages from peculiar anastomosis of branches of 5° — 
influence over special senses, by affecting nutrition of parts: 

e. g. Schneiderian membrane, cornea, iris, mucous membrane of mouth — 
neuralgic affections of head, teeth, "tic douloureux " — profuse 
secretion of tears attending irritation of cheek, pungent odors, 
etc. ; compensating influence when facing the wind — detection 
of physical qualities of food, consistency, etc., taste (?) by lin- 
gual branch=:" gustatory nerve " — relation to mastication — 
effect of partial paralysis of 5°. 

Glosso-pharyngeal=9° p'r. 

Origin=:nidus in oblongata near the oliva; anatomically a sensitive 
spinal nerve, cf. " petrosal ganglion " with ganglion of spinal 
nerve. 



106 

Distribution to caudal :uu:l :: tuar/ae, una - vb.:;!! 
Function = c-hiedv sensory. tactile sensibility slight, sneoial sensibil- 
ity a:ute=ta>te. ex. lingual brauth ::' 5 : — red-ex action in degluti- 
tun — arrlneial irri:aci:n ei:;:t ; nausea .*. immediate a:ci:u in 
• : : ; t::t of emeries— motor ::r middle rharyu^real :oustri:tor. etc.i '?) 

XXXIT. MIXED XERTES. 

Tagus=10 p'r. 

Origin = oblongata in the nidus common to 9 C , 10 : . 11. 
l'j-i.5 filaments — allied to spinal nerves by u jugular ganglion 

Distribution of rami: 1. Pharyngeal: 2. r.r:eri:: la— geal: 3. In- 
ferior laryngeal: 4. (Esu 1: 5. Pulmonary; 6. <T?..st:i:: 7. 
An s : :-m : ti : ; 5 . C a: di . : — t: lexuses formed in thoracic region, their 
relation to respiratory, circulatory, deglntitory. and vocal organs. 

Function, rrimarily sensitive: : mpound structure renders it 
"mixed" — protection against foreign substances in the se~e :ul 
regions — sympathic action of lungs and stomach — vaso-motor — 
reflex action — effects of section of vagi. 

Accessory =11" p'r. 

Origins = oblongata ::. 10 : ana spinal cord. 
Distribution of rilre t: vaiuts. t; :er^::al muszles 

Funetion=fnotor of the vagus, and spinal nerve to cervical regions 

— raralysis : f 11" i;es not iestriy respiratizu. 

XXXT. SE>SE OF TOFCH. 

Modes of Distribution of Nerve Fibre. 

Ternhnal r lexuses —sens: ry :rgaus; 1. Terminal bulbs: 2. Tactile 
:: v. soles : 3. Pa zinian bodies. 
General structure — central granular layer, capsule of con- 
nective tissue, pale nerve fibre, which teiuunates in core. 

v _ a : " si --\;.n — 1, Terminal bulls 

Sjleriiiil — -^-z~- ~"::r rii ; Li ki:: — : \z ~ :U -:i.;U- \\~:t ' U\- 
— terminal bulbs of conjunctiva, lips, tongue, etc. 

2. Tactile ::: uu:les. 



— most abundant on last phalanges of fingers, less in palm of 
hand, sole of foot, lip, dorsal region, etc!— relative sensitiTe- 
ness of different regions of body. 



108 



3. Pacinian bodies. 



Oval — clustered like grapes— fibre terminates in knot-like body at 
outer end of core — capsule = ordinary connective tissue. 

General Properties, etc., of Nerves of Touch. 

Disposal of medullary layer and axis-cylinder — papillae having tac- 
tile corpuscles, devoid of blood vessels — most papilla? having 
capillaries, devoid of corpuscles — office of perspiration in relation 
to touch. — knowledge of form, surface, etc. — relation of tactile 
sensation to prehension — education of tactile nerves in blind — 
quality of fabrics and liquids judged by touch — confusion from 
crossing fingers, etc. — views entertained respecting senses of 
weight, muscular tension, locality, pressure, temperature, pain, 
hunger, thirst, etc. 

XXXTI. SENSE OF TASTE. 

Tongue. 

Structure — attachment — movements — papillae of mucous mem- 
brane: fungiform, filiform; circumvallate; distribution, distinc- 
tive structure, vessels and terminal nerves in each — terminal 
bulbs with taste cells — mucous follicles — sensibility of tip, 
edges and base — distribution of lingual branch of 5 Z and of the 
glosso-pharyngeal nerves — sympathic action of muscles of face 
and stomach — general and special sensibility of tip. 

Distinction in savor, flavor, pungency, " oily taste." etc. — relative sensibility 
of tip to sweet, of base to bitter, etc. 

Stages in Taste. 

1. Solution — effected by saliva, by movement of tongue producing 
pressure and friction — 2. Endosmosis — 3. Contact with nerve 
filaments. 

Nature of the Sense=combination of general sensibility and 
special sense: intensity depends upon 1. area affected, 2. con- 
centration of stimulus, 3. duration of stimulus. 4. temperature: 
acuteness improved by education: varieties=sweet, sour, saline, 
bitter, alkaline (?). 

XXXTII. SENSE OF SMELL. 
Olfactory Membrane — single layer of cylindrical epithelium — dis- 
tribution to superior and middle turbinated region, upper sep- 
tum nasi — characteristic color, yellow (man, sheep, calf) : brown- 
ish (other mammals). 



110 

Sense Confined to Filaments of Special Nerye= Olfactory. 

Nerves of Nasal Passage. 

1. Filaments of olfactory nerve, origin from olfactory bulb — tract 
from bulb to cerebrum=prolonged cerebral convolution — olfac- 
tory cells — terminal plexus — distribution of bush-like tufts of 
fibres to olfactory membrane — communication of olfactory nerves 
through white substance of tubercle (?). 

2. Nasal branch of 5° — distribution to inferior turbinated region — 
sensibility; no power of smell — pungent " odors "= tactile sensa- 
tion. 

3. Sympathic nerves to postnares. 

Physiology of Smell. 

1. Olfactory sensations produced by gaseous odoriferous particles 
in immediate contact with olfactory cells. 

2. Intensity of sensation depends upon 1. area excited, 2. con- 
centration of stimulus, 3. repetition of stimulus. — relation of 
smell and taste — results of experimental division of olfactory 
nerve in dogs — pathological investigations — susceptibility of the 
sense to education. 

XXXTIII. SENSE OF HEARING. 

1. External Ear. 

Cartilage, helix, tragus, meatus, aid in determining direction of 
sonorous impulse. 

Hairs — cerumen — muscles, comparative development. 

2. Middle Ear. 

Tympanic membrane. 

Structure of three layers — funnel shape — attachment to malleus — how 
stretched— how relaxed — adaptation to pitch, etc. — tensor tympani — 
transmission of sonorous impacts to manubrium of malleus. 

Ossicles — system of levers — peculiar articulation of malleus and 
incus; inward motion of malleus necessities inward motion of 
incus, outward motion does not — rotation of malleus — pendu- 
lum movement of stapes — function of stapedius muscle — single 
or unit movement of ossicles — " damping " action of ossicles, 
prevention of excessive sympathetic vibrations in tympanum. 

Openings — to meatus closed by tympanum — fenestra ovalis to ves- 
tibule, foot of stapes — fenestra rotunda to cochlea (tympanic 



112 

stairway) closed by membrane — eustachian tube to pharynx, 
lining of ciliated epithelium, open; equilibrium in atmospheric 
pressure, effect of permanent closure of eustachian tube. 
Mastoid cells. 

3. Internal Ear=Labyrinth. 

Vestibule: perilymph — sacculus, its communication with cochlear 
duct — utricle, its communication with semicircular canals — en- 
dolymph — peculiar distribution of fibre of auditory nerve — 
" macula auditiva " — " auditory hairs " — axis-cylinder, sensitive 
to sonorous impacts (sacculus), and to variation in pressure 
(utricle) — otoconia, otoliths. 
(Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fislies, some Mollusks, some Articulates.) 

Semicircular canals — in vertebrates (amphioxus ?), number and 
relative position constant — equilibration of movements (?) — 
ampullae, absence of nerve fibre. 

Cochlea — modi olus — spiral lamina — basilar membraue — vestibular 
stairway — Keissner's membrane — cochlear duct — tympanic stair- 
way — organ of Corti, outer rods, inner rods, relative inclination, 
length, shape, arch, cells of Deiters — roof membrane — membrane 
of Corti=a " damping" organ (?) — hair-cells=auditory ele- 
ments, their structure, relations, innervation. 

Physiology of Audition. 

Kequisites for sound, conduction of vibrations through ectal 
meatus, through bones of head, and through fenestral membrane 
when tympanic membrane is absent — analysis of simple wave, 
of compound wave — sympathetic vibrations — octave pitch when 
vibrating fork held against temporal bone — action of ossicles on 
fenestral membrane, on perilymph, endolymph, organ of Corti, 
etc. — duration of sensation excited by sonorous impulse — pendu- 
lum motion requisite — intensity due to amplitude — pitch to fre- 
quency — quality due to harmonics — limits of andible sound — 
relation of hearing to memory — congenital deafness. 

XXXIX. SENSE OF SIGHT. 

Appendages of Eye. 

Eyebrows — structure — function in relation to light, dust, etc. 
Eyelids — relative size — tarsal cartilage (?) and ligaments — how 
opened and closed — lacus lachrymalis — caruncle — juxtaposition 



114 

of thickened margins forming triangular conduit to papillse, 
outer margin meeting before inner — insertion and direction of 
lashes to prevent interlacing — " plica semilunaris " and its hom- 
ologues — meibomian glands, relative size in lids, structure and 
function, where discharge secretion — conjunctiva, sensitiveness of, 
its reflection on globe of eye, corneal cells peculiar. 
Lachrymal apparatus — glands and ducts — discharge chiefly in fold 
above outer canthus — function of lachrymal fluid — canals, rela- 
tive size of upper and lower, ciliated walls — termination of nasal 
duct. 

Muscles of eye-ball: origin, insertion and action of each, relative 
tension when at rest, strabismus — action during perception and 
reflection — tension an aid in determining distance, etc. — con- 
trolling nerves — paralysis. 

Globe of Eye. 

General shape: profile view gives segments of two spheres, anterior 
smaller. 

Sclerotic coat: its structure, extent — ectal and ental surfaces — 
posterior portion thickest — innervation. 

Cornea: relative convexity — stratified structure — refractory power, 
etc. — absence of blood vessels — innervation — relative thickness 
of centre and margin — canal of Schlemm. 

Choroid coat: surfaces, ental, ectal — extent — folds in anterior mar- 
gin=ciliary processes, their attachment to suspensory ligament of 
lens — hexagonal nucleated layer of pigment, abundance on ciliary 
processes and iris; function; absence in albinos — analogous lin- 
ing of telescopes. 

Iris: position — structure, sphincter and dilating muscular fibre — 
attachment to inner wall of canal of Schlemm — color pigment of 
anterior surface and black pigment of posterior, continuous with 
choroid — pupil, color, function, size, how regulated. 

Hyaloid membrane: structure, thin, clear — anterior attachment 
with " suspensory ligament " of lens — fibres extend into interior 
of vitreous humor in embryo; not found in adult. 

Retina: not an expansion of optic nerve, its anatomical elements 
give it a distinctive structure — retina=specialized apparatus 
connected with terminal nerves of sight — extent — union of an- 
terior margin with ciliary processes — diminishing thickness 



116 

anteriorly — " Macula lutea," yellow spot; its position and how 
found; depression in retina to one-half its usual thickness; dis- 
tinctive structure of yellow spot= 

1°. Absence of superficial layer of optic fibre. 2 r . Abundance of cells 
of ganglionic layer, cells superposed. 

" Fovea Centralis " centre of yellow spot. 

Betina=two layers, (a) rods and cones — (b) nuclear layer — nucleated fibre 
directed obliquely outward, instead of perpendicularly to retina — 
cones predominate, exclusive at immediate centre — form of cones 

elongated. 

Ten layers of retina — "Blind Spot"; location, Marriotte's ex- 
periment, function, predominance of optic fibre, absence of 
rods and cones, insensibity of optic fibre to light, experiment 
of Donders. 

Humors. 

1. Aqueous: chamber occupied — slight refractive power — holds 
anterior surface of eye in form — free movement of iris. 

2. Vitreous: consistency — volume — refracting power slight — 
not supplied with vessels — nutriment by imbibition from 
adjacent vascular textures. 

3. Crystalline Lens: capsule — peculiar form — retained by hu- 
mors and hyaloid membrane — structure, flattened fibres 
parallel to surface, edge slightly serrated (mammals) — ele- 
ments are homogeneous and are united by juxtaposition — 
function, (a.) to converge rays — (b.) to prevent aberration — 
(c.) to give distinct perception — (d.) to enable to perceive 
figure and extension — (e.) to judge of distance (?) — opacity 
= cataract — asymmetrical development of lens=astigma- 
tism. 

Yision. 

Field of vision in man 150°-180°-| " line of direct vision M — 

distinctness due to relative sensitiveness to light and to focal 
adjustment — " point of distinct vision." 

Distant object viewed, and immediately one near at hand, indistinctness 
until eye adjusted — conscious effort. 

Focal Adjustment. 

Change in distinctness of image attending adjustment, shown by 
ophthalmoscope, (Helmholtz) — focal adjustment principally ac- 
complished by change of convexity of anterior surface of lens — 
experiments of Donders and Helmholtz — " catoptric images " — 
action of iris and ciliary muscles — limits of adjustment — myopia 



118 

— emmetropia — presbyopia — legitimate and illegitimate use of 
lens — effects of study on eye-sight — far-si ghtedness:=passive 
state of eye — eye at rest adjusted to distant objects — near-sight- 
edness=excited state of eye — weariness consequent upon pro- 
tracted examination of near objects — far-sight remains intact in 
the aged, near-sight is impaired. 

Binocular Yision. 

Distance — form — position — perspective — photographic distortions 
— erect vision — " point of fixation " — stereoscopic effect — corres- 
pondence of vision in two eyes. 
Duration of Luminous Impressions. 

Sparks from emery wheel — spokes of wheel in motion — thaurna- 
trope — experiments of Prof. Kood — retention of image by retina 
after death (?) — Thompson's strobic circles — illusions of motion. 

Exhaustion of Optic Nerve. 

Sensibility exhausted — " complementary colors " — temporary and 

permanent injury from exhaustion of visual nerve. 

Entoptic Phenomena. Purkinje's images, pressure phosphenes, 
shadows, muscae volitantes, movements of blood discs in retinal 
capillaries. 

Color. 

Primary=red, green, violet — secondary=tints — theory of color 
sensation — color-blindness. 

Hygienic Suggestions. 

Admission of light into counting-rooms, school-rooms, galleries — 
desirable qualities in artificial lights — position of lamps — decora- 
tion of walls, tinting, etc. — removal of dust from eye — wearing of 
glasses — sudden transitions of light avoided — training of eyes to 
far-sight — reports of Dr. Cohn of Breslau, Dr. Agnew of New 
York, and others upon the eyes of students — -relation of sight to 
memory in the " visionaire," cf. the " auditaire." 



120 
WORKS OF REFERENCE. 

Allen, Harrison — Outlines of Comparative Anatomy and Medical Zoology, pp. 190. 
Philadelphia: Lippincott & Co. 

Ashby, Henry — Memoranda of Physiology. 

Balfour, Francis M. — Comparative Embryology. 2 vols. London: Macmillan &Co. 

Carpenter, W. B. — Mental Physiology, pp. 737. New York: Appleton & Co. 

Dalton, J. C. — Human Physiology for Students and Practitioners. Sixth edition, 
pp. 825, illus. 316. Philadelphia: Lea. 

Draper. J. C— Text-Book on Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, pp. 300, illus. 
170. New York: Harpers. 

Ferrier — Functions of the Brain, pp. 353. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 

Flint, Austin, Jr. — Physiology of Man. 5 vols. New York: Appleton & Co. 

Foster— Text-Book of Physiology, pp. 570. New York: MacMillan & Co. 

Foster & Langley— Practical Physiology. Second edition, pp. 244. London: Mac- 
millan & Co. 

Gegenbaur — Elements of Comparative Anatomy, pp.645. London: Macmillan & Co. 
Gray — Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical, pp. 1023, illus. 462. Philadelphia: Lea. 
Hawkins. B. Waterhouse — Comparative View of the Animal and Human Frame. 
London: Chapman & Hall. 

Hutchison — Physiology and Hygiene. Text-Book, pp. 270. New York: Clark & 
Maynard. 

Huxley — Anatomy of Yertebrated Animals, pp. 431. New York: Appleton. 

Huxley and Youmans — Physiology and Hygiene. Revised edition, pp. 485. New 
York: Appleton. 

Kuss — Lectures on Physiology, pp. 531, illus. 130. Boston. 

Landois and Stirling — Text-Book of Human Physiology. Second edition pp. 922, 
illus. 583. Philadelphia: P. Blackiston, Son & Co., 1887. 

MacDonald — Water Analysis, pp. 65, plates. London: Churchill. 

Martin, H. Newell— The Human Body. New York: Henry Holt & Co. 

Max von PettenKofer — Ground Air in its Hygienic Relations. Popular Scienc 
Monthly, July, 1877. 

Mayer — Physiology of Audition. American Journal of Science and Arts. 

Prescott — Strong Drink, and Tobacco Smoke, pp. 71, illus. 167, steel. New York: 

Wood. 
Quain's Anatomy. Seventh edition, 2 vols. London: Longmans, Green & Co. 
Smith, Edward— Foods, pp. 485. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 
Stowell, C. H. — Manual of Histology. Third edition, pp. 368, illus. 178. Ann Arbor, 

Mich. 
Stowell, C. H. — The Microscopic Structure of a Human tooth. 12 parts with text. 

Ann Arbor, Mich. , 1885. 
Stowell, C. H.— A Healthy Body. pp. 224, illus. Chicago: John C. Buckbee&Co. 

1889. 
Strieker — Manual of Histology, pp. 1106, illus. 431. New York: Wm. Wood& Co, 

Tyndall — Dust and Disease. Fraser's Magazine. Eclectic, May, 1870. 
Walker, Jerome — Physiology, pp. 415, illus. New York: A. Lovell & Co. 1885. 
Wells — Long, Short and Weak Sight. Third edition, pp. 248. Philadelphia. 
Wilder and Gage — Anatomical Technology, pp. 575. New York: A. S. Barnes & Co. 
Wilder— What Young People Should Know, pp. 212, illus. 26. Boston: Estes & 

Lauriat 
Wilder — Intermembral Homologies 

Winslow — Brain and Mind. Second American edition, pp. 483. Philadelphia: Lea. 
Witkowski. G. J.— A Movable Atlas of the Human Body. Ten parts. London: 

Bailliere. 
Yoe — On Stimulants. Popular Science Monthly, Supplement, No. 1, pp. 12. 







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